來多認識一點英文Know More About English

Contents

PART I 觀念的釐清與建立

單字與閱讀（一）

單字與閱讀（續）

單字與閱讀（完結篇）

approve/ approve of差很大

Come in Time/ Come on Time，哪個到得比較早？

contact和with並沒有那麼好

for the sake of不等於because of

hardly的故事

ignore和neglect的比較

some time/ sometime別搞我

so和so that已經不一樣

To Repeat or Not to Repeat－細說英文中的避免重複問題

When "Pay for?" When "Pay?" 從此搞定

一個中式英文的例子－every time when

一個關於現在簡單式的文法問題

小句子、大問題

不是My friend喔！

介紹一個有用的句型

主動的結構；被動的意涵

主詞與動詞的一致

多個形容詞並列時的排序問題

你可能不知道的in和after

你夠認識我嗎？－of的自訴

你對英文結構知多少？

長句未必對；短句不一定錯

怎麼用英文表示「越來越…」

英文的marry、divorce和engage的恩怨情仇

要怎麼「治療」－cure、heal和treat

要怎麼說「數字」-number、numeral、figure和digit

修飾語和主詞的關係探討

假設語氣

動詞時態的一致與呼應

從確認主、動詞到提升閱讀效率

現在完成式與過去簡單式的判別

「最近」看過recently、lately或these days嗎？

給寫作初學者一把鑰匙

過去完成式的誤用與恰用

說I win you就輸了

「雖然」、「但是」有好多！

關係子句其實可以更友善

讓你賺很大的5個英文用法

PART II 主題單字

誤導閱讀的單字

人格與性格

人際互動

工具；用具

大量與少量

大與小；粗與細

公正；偏見；徇私

天候；時令

切割；砍

水與火

手與觸覺

化學與生物

文學藝術

平凡與超凡

叫喊；騷動；喧嘩

犯罪與懲罰

本質與性質

用錢種種

名字；身分

光；光線

地形與地理

守則與違規

成就；表現

同意與反對

各種和移動相關的字

同與異

安慰；慰藉

危險與安全

汙穢與潔淨

名譽；名聲

吸引；著迷

克制；節制

技術；技巧；能力

批評；指責

位置或方向

男與女

身與心

利與害

延遲；耽擱

束縛與解放

困擾與侵擾

判斷與評估

見識；敏銳度

朋友與敵人

使用；利用

事件與因果關係

爭吵；打架

居住與居所

來改變一下－change的朋友多

奇怪與滑稽

法律

花草樹木

表情

宗教與神話

拒絕；否決

空間與距離

服裝；打扮；儀表

表達；傳達；陳述

忠誠與背叛

爭論；討論

金錢與財富

和諧與衝突

來學學欺騙和假裝

明顯清晰或模糊

肢體接觸

流行；時尚；狂熱

便利與阻礙

軍事；戰爭

星星；月亮；太陽

重要與瑣碎

英勇、魯莽與怯懦

咱們一起來走路—不要一直"walk"

相容；對稱；對比

祕密；機密

姿勢或肢體動作

恰當與失當

看與視覺

建築；建築物

信賴與質疑

威嚴；親切；平易近人

旅行；旅程

格言；警句；座右銘

氣味；口感

倦怠；疲憊

原則；標準；範例

家庭與親屬

高與低

笑與哭

真與假

討厭；嫌惡

記憶與遺忘

逃避與面對

書籍或檔案文獻資料

責任與義務

部份與整體-

做事方法、模式與態度

速度

莊重、幽默或輕浮

排除；去除

健康、氣色與疾病

婚喪喜慶

陳腔濫調與模仿

停頓、延續與重複

混亂與秩序

得與失

強與弱

乾與濕

粗魯與文雅

鳥獸蟲魚

液體；氣體；固體

給予；分配

開心歡樂去

殘忍；邪惡

鄉村與都市

開始與結束

痛苦

飲食種種

復原；恢復

階級；等第

尊敬與挑釁

勝與敗

悲與喜；憂與樂

短暫與永恆

無趣與無聊

暗示；顯示

傾向；性向；喜好

想；思考；沉思

傷害

搜索與探查

運動大不同

傳統與習俗

溝渠；洞穴；缺口

預測；預兆

道路；交通

毀損；破壞；消滅

農業與農事

裝飾；點綴

傲慢招搖；謙恭低調

禍與福

經濟與商務

解釋；說明

經驗；閱歷

語言文字

態度；立場；觀點

需要；需求

緊張、做作或率直

輕視與重視

管道；途徑

滿意與抱怨

蓄意與無心

說說放棄；談談堅持

聚與散

睡與夢

撤銷；廢除

廣大與侷促

增加與減少

談判；協商

請求；懇求

憤怒；生氣

嘲笑；捉弄

熱情與無情

慾望；願望

談談；說說；唱唱

激起；喚起；激勵；助長

錯誤與悔悟

選擇；取捨

學識；知識

幫助；促成

聰明與愚昧

環境；處境

顏色

職位；權利；權威

職業；工作

醫藥與醫生

關於政治

難與易

勸告、哄、引誘

競爭；較量

聽和聲音

變好、變壞怎麼說？

驚訝或害怕

體態；外貌

讚美與奉承

PART I 觀念的釐清與建立

單字與閱讀（一）

我經常被問到一個問題：「為什麼單字查了，放到句子裡就是怪怪的，查到的意思還是沒有辦法幫助我理解句子。」所以會有這樣的問題，至少有以下五種可能的其中之一：

• 句子裡的單字其實不只是你所查的那個或那些。例如：
  The savant gave me a civil reply.

不認識savant的人，第一個動作多半是查出他的意思－大師、大學者。但到此，很多人依舊不了解上句的意思，原因就出在另一個字civil。好多人恐怕想不到civil除了有「公民的」、「市民的」之外，它還有「斯文的」、「有禮貌的」的意思。英文實在很討厭，但這麼一來，上句的意思就出來了：那位大師給了我一個彬彬有禮的回答。

從這裡，引申出一個重要問題：什麼是單字？聽我這麼說，大概許多人要哈哈大笑了！這算是什麼問題？單字不就是拼法陌生的字嗎？就算這是問題，也應該談不上「重要」吧！但事實不然，因為遇到拼法陌生的字我們要不是查清楚，就是要對它小心看待，不會妄加猜測意思。尤其在閱讀過程中，如果出現像air, ear, given或甚至civil這一類我們800年前就已經熟到不行的字，想必很少人會認為他們裡面其實另有玄機。但就是有這類的字，例如：

air = 外表；模樣；態度；氣氛；曲調；歌調

ear = （稻子、小麥等穀物的）穗

given = 如果考慮到；鑒於…（介系詞）；成為習慣的；熱衷於…（形容詞）

需要強調的是，至少在比較正式一點的文章中，以上所列的字意都不算少見，這些都是英文真正好的人應該知道的。因此，為了更精準掌握英文的閱讀，我們應該對單字重新定位。他們不應該是（或至少不應該只是）拼法陌生的字，而是可能誤導閱讀的字。

不過，我們也不要看了上述的舉例就感到害怕和沮喪，認為如果連air都暗藏陷阱，英文還讀得下去嗎？是不是每個字都可能誤導我們呢？當然不是。不然，現在正在寫文章的這個人早就舉白旗投降了。其實，我們只要做到兩件事情，英文的閱讀就不會有問題。

首先就是要謙卑，無論是哪個字，只要他的意思放在句子裡怎麼解釋都不通，我們就不應該執著，就得查字典看看他是否有別的意思。在這樣一個E化的時代，相信這種謙卑一點都不困難。其次，只要我們夠細膩敏銳，就不容易被單字所誤導。

我曾經讓學生讀一篇故事，有個學生自告奮勇，願意在我講解之前先行準備，然後和同學分享心得。實際上課那天，他跟我說：「老師，這個故事好奇怪喔！比如說吧，為什麼莫名其妙地突然提到一群盲人等等。」他之所以這麼說，是因為故事中出現了the blinds。其實如果他願意再多想一點，就知道這裡的the blinds絕對不可能是指一群盲人，因為故事跟盲人完全沒有關係，更何況blind是形容詞「失明的」，在這裡用法也不對。除了形容詞「盲的」之外，blind還能當名詞指窗簾，這也是它在那個故事裡的含意。如果the blinds真的和「盲」有關，那就一定是片語或慣用語，那位學生至少應該弄清楚這點，就能避免被誤導閱讀。

• 字意無助閱讀的原因是―對好些字我們通常只理解半套，也就是傾向用最簡化的中譯記憶單字。這方面survive是個好例子。問起這個字的意思，很多人可能會不假思索地回答「生還」。如果是下面這個句子，這個中譯的確可以過關：

We survived the accident last week. （我們在上星期的那次意外中生還）
可是，下面這個句子中的survive又該怎麼說呢？

I hope I never survive my usefulness.
曾經無數次問學生這個句子，印象中從來沒有人答出來，因為他們都卡在「生還」 這個中譯裡了。然而，根據英文的定義，survive是to live longer than; to continue to live after。所以如果直翻，survive應譯為「活得比…長」或「在…之後還活著」。遺憾的是，當我們看到字典這麼翻時，不只不予理會，可能還嫌人家翻得爛，並疑惑人家為什麼不知道把他翻成「生還」。但用「生還」這個中譯上面的句子就幾乎無解。相反的，如果我們把「活得比…長」等這一類「很爛」的翻法帶入上述句子，意思很快就能出來：我希望永遠有用（希望不要活得比我的用處還長）。

由此我們不難知道，為什麼老師們會一再的鼓勵學生多多使用英英字典查單字。即使一時做不到，至少不能只揀最簡單好記的中譯記憶單字。如果連我們都知道「生還」比「活得比…長」更通順簡潔、更像中文，那些翻譯字典的泰斗級教授或學者為什麼會不知道呢？

• 有時我們不能直接引用一個字的原意，而是得用他的喻意或引申意。例如template，他原意是切金屬、木材、黏土等所用的樣板或金屬模片。但看看以下的句子：

Taiwan's development can serve as a template for many other countries.
很明顯地，如果把template的原意放進上句，怎麼兜也不可能兜得攏。但看看上個句子，再想想template所傳達的意思，我們不難知道這樣的模板不就好像一個範例嗎？這麼一想，上句就有解了：臺灣的經濟發展經驗可做為其他許多國家的範例。

生活無處不需要想像，理解單字也不例外。

• 有時問題不在單字，而是在句子的結構。例如：
  Tom does not believe in Islam any more than John does.

不認識Islam這個字的人一定以為一旦查出它的意思，上句就可以搞定。但遺憾的是他們不是錯解句意不自知，就是茫然失望依舊。因為，上個句子其實是一個常見且重要的英文句構（我們有機會再細說）：A is no/ not any more than B等於「A和B都不…」。A是Tom，B是John，所以整句的意思是：Tom和John都不信伊斯蘭教。

• 字意和文意連不起來的最後一個原因是：有些字的解釋，必須隨著他所在的上下文靈活調整。這方面最好的例子莫過於otherwise。除了「否則」、「不然」之外， otherwise還有「不同地」、「以別種方式」(differently; in another manner)的意思。當句子裡的otherwise是這個意思時，我們就得判斷他所描述的是哪兩種情況的不同。這是中文所沒有的呈現方式，為了讓大家更熟悉和習慣這種表達，我們特別蒐集了好些例子：

1. He should have been studying, but he was otherwise engaged.
   should + have + 過去分詞表示過去應該做卻沒有做，engaged是busy的意思。忙什麼？自然是忙讀書以外（不同）的事情。所以這個句子應該解為：他當時應該要念書的，卻在忙別的事。
2. I hate him and I won't pretend otherwise.
   句子一開始提到hate，不要「假裝不一樣」，和什麼不一樣呢？當然是和hate不一樣，也就是不要假裝like。這麼一解釋，句意就再明顯不過了：我不喜歡他，也不會假裝喜歡他。
3. I thought she would bring her date to my birthday party, but she came otherwise.
   這個句子應該比較好解釋。前面說「以為會帶」，和這個情況不同自然是沒有帶。 不過我問學生，幾乎所有人都說這個女生帶別人來，我認為這樣的說法太過侷限，因為這位小姐一個人來也是「沒有帶男朋友來」。所以，這個句子應該這麼翻譯才算正確 ：我以為她會帶男朋友來參加我的慶生會，但她沒有。
4. He is not guilty until proved otherwise.
   前面是not guilty，和這種情況不同當然就是guilty。所以句意是：在證明有罪之前，他是無罪的。
5. Under the circumstances, I can't believe otherwise.
   不能相信不同，就是得相信實際的所見所聞。所以句意是：在那種情況下由不得我不信。
   （以下4句只做翻譯，不再說明）
6. I thought we have the same idea, but evidently you think otherwise. （我以為我們的看法一致，但你顯然有不同的想法）
7. She is always in good spirits, so I don't know why she behaved otherwise yesterday. （她一向活潑爽朗，所以我不曉得為什麼她昨天怪怪的）
8. The government claims that the economy is improving, but this survey suggests otherwise. （政府宣稱經濟持續改善，但這份調查報告顯示的卻是另一回事）
9. The poem does not necessarily concern love; it may be otherwise interpreted. （這不必然就是一首情詩，也許能做別的解讀）
   的確，閱讀中碰到otherwise有些傷腦筋。還好像這樣的字很少，所以大家可以放心，搞定otherwise之後就贏很大了。

單字與閱讀（續）

關於單字，我們一定都想過一個問題，就是在閱讀過程中哪些單字需要查？哪些單字可以一時放過？這就是以下所要討論的要點。同時，我也將討論一旦少查單字之後，要怎樣確保閱讀的精準和扎實。

1. 哪些單字需要查？

1. 一再出現的單字。

這種單字未必重要，所以要查，純粹是一個感覺和心情問題。試想，當我們讀東西時，如果一個不認識的單字一直跑出來，那個感覺一定不好。把它查了，不只可以消除那種不好的感覺，同時取而代之的會有一種征服了什麼東西的快感：「再出來吧！再出來吧！」無疑的，這種快感可以提高閱讀的興致。

2. 關鍵單字。

同樣的，關鍵單字也不一定重要。它們所以關鍵，是就其所在的閱讀情境說的。例如曾獲得諾貝爾文學獎的20世紀美國最偉大小說家William Faulkner，他有一篇叫"A Rose for Emily"的短篇小說，是傳統外文系必讀的，而且四年裡可能不只讀一次。故事中，主角Emily出於她自己認為的不得已原因，決心毒殺摯愛男友Homer。她用什麼進行她的謀殺計畫呢？arsenic－砒霜！不用說，這個字在日常生活中不常用，但在這個故事裡，如果我們不查出arsenic的意思，對於Emily內心世界和故事整體張力的體會就會大打折扣。由此可見，在某種特殊的閱讀情境中，很不常用的單字可能變得關鍵，需要查。此外，當閱讀論述性的文章時，出現在段落主題句(topic sentence)和文章主旨(thesis statement)中的單字通常也很關鍵。

3. 重要單字。

假如有個原本應該是很普通的句子，卻因為卡了一個單字而使重點模糊。不過，句子的整體語意又暗示我們這個單字可能值得學習記憶，這種單字就叫做重要單字。例如： I don't like this movie because it is too didactic.
相信不認識didactic的人也能從句子的整體語意知道它一定是負面表述的形容詞，但符合這種可能的選項很多，信手拈來就有：沈悶的；冗長的；暴力血腥的；晦澀難懂的；低俗的；煽情的；說教的。在我們還不知道didactic的意思是「說教的」 之前，至少已經確定一件事情，就是它不管對應到以上7個中文詞彙之中的哪一個，都是我們在評論文學藝術時常用的，因此也就值得學習記憶，這就是didactic何以是「重要單字」的原因。
另一方面，如果不弄清楚didactic的意思，上面那句話真正的意思就不可得，因此重要單字自然也經常是關鍵單字。需要說明的是，一個單字重要與否有時也和我們閱讀的目的和內容密切相關。例如：
The old lady is wise, compassionate, and affable（這位老太太有智慧、慈悲且和藹）
這句話中的affable和compassionate對某些人來說也許是單字。然而，假如我們閱讀的量很大（例如長篇小說）、時間緊迫（例如考試或報告的deadline在即）或只為賞析文學作品而讀，那麼就不一定要查這兩個字。因為，經由wise和正向連接詞and的暗示，我們知道compassionate和affable同樣都是在描寫老太太的正面特質。假使用反向連接詞but，我們也能知道老太太固然有智慧，但同時也具有兩種負面特質。如果我們不是為學英文而讀或由於時間等因素的考量，了解到這個程度也就夠了。相反的，如果是為學英文而讀，那麼就不只是不認識的字需要查，連前一篇文章提到過的可能誤導閱讀的字都得徹底弄清楚。

2. 哪些單字可以一時放過？

這個問題不難由以上論述推想出答案：假如一個單字既沒有一再出現，也不關鍵或重要，那就可以一時放過。總之，除非是需要精讀的文章或你真的有意願和能力背下每一個你所查的單字，否則單字應該查越少越好。一個淺顯的道理是：我們為什麼要花那麼多時間去查一大堆對整體文意沒有影響，而且我們也不會去學習記憶的單字呢？

3. 什麼比查單字更重要？

相較於查單字，選擇符合程度的閱讀材料、整理各段落重點和做摘要明顯重要許多，以下將逐一說明。同時，我也將在本文之後附上一個整理段落和摘要的樣本。那是 出自John Collier的短篇小說"The Chaser"，表面看來情節很不合邏輯，實則暗藏作者對於愛情被嚴重資本主義化的諷刺和批判。

1. 選擇符合程度的閱讀材料。
   我曾有兩個字彙和文法基礎都很弱的家教學生，不約而同地表示他們用來提昇英文能力的讀本是Harry Potter。問起何以選那本書， 理由都是他們看過中譯版和電影。我到現在為止也沒有幾個家教學生，其中一個還只是國一，還不可能讀英文版的「哈利波特」。這麼少的人當中就有兩人這麼選，由此可以推知這應該是不少人用以提昇英文的方式。
   但這是個不切實際的選擇，因為其結果多半不是改善英文，而是測試對「哈利波特」情節的記憶。究竟該選擇有怎樣單字量的讀本和個人的負荷能力與企圖心有關，難有定論。不過，一個段落還沒讀完就出現七、八個單字或者已經讀了七、八段了卻一個單字也沒有的讀本肯定都不是好選擇。
2. 整理各段落重點。
   1. 應該用中文還是英文？答案是中文。不只是整理段落重點，寫摘要也一樣。從我養成寫摘要和整理段落重點的習慣以來，印象中只有一個學期使用英文。訓練英文書寫能力當然很重要，但這裡恐怕不是個理想的場合，時間很多或在英語國家居住多年、思維模式已經很英文化的人屬於例外。很多時候我們需要在短時間大量閱讀，多數人的中文寫作能力一定也好過英文。基於這兩個原因，我鼓勵用中文。想要訓練英文寫作機會很多，寫日記就是。
   2. 隨讀隨記，不用擔心誤讀。為確保記憶的完整精確和避免重新閱讀整篇內容的大量時間花費，我們應該讀到哪裡重點也跟著整理到那裡。讀錯的情況誰都可能發生。畢竟，回頭修正筆記總比因記憶模糊而導致得重新閱讀要省事多了。假如是用電腦或手機寫重點，修改更不是問題。
   3. 不需要每段都寫。無論哪一種文本，故事性的或議論性的，其內容大略都可分為闡述主題的段落和提供細節與例子的段落。讀者需要整理的，就是闡述主題段落中的重點。因此我們不只不需要每段都記，還可以將好幾個段落合併起來寫成一個重點。

另外，有些議論性的文章為了平衡報導，作者往往會引用和自己意見相左的觀點，像這樣的段落也不應該花太多時間和篇幅寫重點。例如有一篇叫做"Cohabiting Is Not the Same as Commitment"的文章，內容是作者Karen S. Peterson完全呼應學者Stanley的研究結果，主張婚前就與女友同居的美國男士，哪怕最終與那位女友結婚，其對婚姻的忠誠度經常遠不如婚前未曾同居的男人。為了論述的平衡，Peterson在第9-13段提出了異於Stanley的研究結果，例如說某些民調證明，男人事實上比女人更願意結婚、更相信婚姻，或說有女性也認為，反覆嘗試有助婚姻的維繫等等。這篇文章共14段，所以Peterson用了超過文章1/3的段落數平衡論述。儘管篇幅這麼多，但我們在整理這部份的重點時其實只需要一句話就夠。不只如此，除非是為了學英文，不然碰到類似功能的閱讀內容也應當少查單字、迅速瀏覽。

3. 做摘要。

假如整理段落重點得提綱挈領，做摘要更當省略細節。如果是一整本書，就得每個章節分別寫摘要。重要和關鍵的、你幾乎每次都會深入複習的章節應該力求精簡；次要或是只要讀過一次就可以的部份，需要寫得詳細些。儘管是次要章節，如果摘要過於簡單或甚至略而未寫，時間一久複習起來就會覺得不踏實，並困惑這是當初自己太偷懶，還是這個章節真的很瑣碎。比如Jane Austen的代表作「傲慢與偏見 」Pride and Prejudice。其中第34章我的摘要是這麼寫的：「Darcy對Elizabeth的公開求愛和遭拒。」讀過這本書的人都知道這是重要和關鍵的一章。一旦有機會重讀，我們一定希望重溫其中的精彩，因此過於詳細的摘要就不需要。相反的，第9章的內容相對次要，我認為日後可以不需要重讀，所以我的摘要就比較詳細：「Mrs. Bennet前往Bingley家探視Jane。雖明知女兒無礙，卻謊稱她的情況不好，不適合移動。Mrs. Bennet的一言一行又為Bingley姊妹留下許多嘲諷批評的材料。」

在大學教書最後這兩、三年，由於該修正補充的上課講義已大致完善，加上還有別的事情，有些時候我並沒有做課前的準備。但讓我敢不備課就去上一年來未接觸的教材，最大原因絕對不是對自己記憶力的自信，而是我有好的摘要和段落重點筆記。這種整理功夫不只是讀英文，即使讀中文都很適用。單就讀英文來說，習慣一旦養成，假如碰到英文我們的腦子就會自動切換到整理段落重點和做摘要的思維模式。這麼一來，哪怕是不能做筆記的各種英文閱讀測驗，我們的思路將更有條理，答題也必然更篤定。就衝著這個，想要考各種英文證照的人能不養成這樣的習慣嗎？

附件：摘要和分段整理重點樣本

The Chaser

John Collier

摘要

Alan Austen到一個老人那裡買春藥。這老人賣東西的方式很奇怪，具有神效、肯定能大賺一筆的春藥，他卻賣得出奇的便宜。相反地，很可能乏人問津的所謂「生命清潔劑」他卻賣得極其昂貴，而且分文不可少。當然，這不關Alan的事，買得了便宜貨，他高高興興地走了。

各段重點與全文

1-2：Alan Austen費了點功夫，找到老人的住處。

1. Alan Austen, as nervous as a kitten, went up certain dark and creaky stairs in the neighborhood of Pell Street, and peered about for a long time on the dim landing before he found the name he wanted written obscurely on one of the doors.

2. He pushed open this door, as he had been told to do, and found himself in a tiny room, which contained no furniture but a plain kitchen table, a rocking-chair, and an ordinary chair. On one of the dirty buff-colored walls were a couple of shelves, containing in all perhaps a dozen bottles and jars.

3-6：Alan似乎不太敢明言自己的來意。

3. An old man sat in the rocking-chair, reading a newspaper. Alan, without a word, handed him the card he had been given. "Sit down, Mr. Austen," said the old man very politely. "I am glad to make your acquaintance."

4. "Is it true," asked Alan, "that you have a certain mixture that has-er-quite extraordinary effects?"

5. "My dear sir," replied the old man, "my stock in trade is not very large--I don't deal in laxatives and teething mixtures--but such as it is, it is varied. I think nothing I sell has effects which could be precisely described as ordinary."

6. "Well, the fact is..." began Alan.

7-11：老人拿出他的第一項產品－生命清潔劑。對於這種藥水他索價五千，分毫少不得。

7. "Here, for example," interrupted the old man, reaching for a bottle from the shelf. "Here is a liquid as colorless as water, almost tasteless, quite imperceptible in coffee, wine, or any other beverage. It is also quite imperceptible to any known method of autopsy."

8. "Do you mean it is a poison?" cried Alan, very much horrified.

9. "Call it a glove-cleaner if you like," said the old man indifferently. "Maybe it will clean gloves. I have never tried. One might call it a life-cleaner. Lives need cleaning sometimes."

10. "I want nothing of that sort," said Alan.

11. "Probably it is just as well," said the old man. "Do you know the price of this? For one teaspoonful, which is sufficient, I ask five thousand dollars. Never less. Not a penny less."

（12：未記錄重點）

12. "I hope all your mixtures are not as expensive," said Alan apprehensively.

13：老人主動提起他賣春藥，且價錢便宜。

13. "Oh dear, no," said the old man. "It would be no good charging that sort of price for a love potion, for example. Young people who need a love potion very seldom have five thousand dollars. Otherwise they would not need a love potion."

（14-18：未記錄重點）

14. "I am glad to hear that," said Alan.

15. "I look at it like this," said the old man. "Please a customer with one article, and he will come back when he needs another. Even if it is costlier. He will save up for it, if necessary."

16. "So," said Alan, "you really do sell love potions?"

17. "If I did not sell love potions," said the old man, reaching for another bottle, "I should not have mentioned the matter to you. It is only when one is in a position to oblige that one can afford to be so confidential."

18. "And these potions," said Alan. "They are not just-just-er--"

19-37：老人具體地說明春藥的效果。他說，任何人服了它，就會從原本的不把愛當回事、對情人若即若離，轉變為死心塌地、服服貼貼。更重要的是，這種轉變是永久的，不是暫時的。

19. "Oh, no," said the old man. "Their effects are permanent, and extend far beyond the mere casual impulse. But they include it. Oh, yes they include it. Bountifully, insistently. Everlastingly."

20. "Dear me!" said Alan, attempting a look of scientific detachment. "How very interesting!"

21. "But consider the spiritual side," said the old man.

22. "I do, indeed," said Alan.

23. "For indifference," said the old man, "they substitute devotion. For scorn, adoration. Give one tiny measure of this to the young lady--its flavor is imperceptible in orange juice, soup, or cocktails--and however gay and giddy she is, she will change altogether. She will want nothing but solitude and you."

24. "I can hardly believe it," said Alan. "She is so fond of parties."

25. "She will not like them anymore," said the old man. "She will be afraid of the pretty girls you may meet."

26. "She will actually be jealous?" cried Alan in a rapture. "Of me?"

27. "Yes, she will want to be everything to you."

28. "She is, already. Only she doesn't care about it."

29. "She will, when she has taken this. She will care intensely. You will be her sole interest in life."

30. "Wonderful!" cried Alan.

31. "She will want to know all you do," said the old man. "All that has happened to you during the day. Every word of it. She will want to know what you are thinking about, why you smile suddenly, why you are looking sad."

32. "That is love!" cried Alan.

33. "Yes," said the old man. "How carefully she will look after you! She will never allow you to be tired, to sit in a draught, to neglect your food. If you are an hour late, she will be terrified. She will think you are killed, or that some siren has caught you."

34. "I can hardly imagine Diana like that!" cried Alan, overwhelmed with joy.

35. "You will not have to use your imagination," said the old man. "And, by the way, since there are always sirens, if by any chance you should, later on, slip a little, you need not worry. She will forgive you, in the end. She will be terribly hurt, of course, but she will forgive you--in the end."

36. "That will not happen," said Alan fervently.

37. "Of course not," said the old man. "But, if it did, you need not worry. She would never divorce you. Oh, no! And, of course, she will never give you the least, the very least, grounds for--uneasiness."

（38-42：未記錄重點）

38. "And how much," said Alan, "is this wonderful mixture?"

39. "It is not as dear," said the old man, "as the glove-cleaner, or life-cleaner, as I sometimes call it. No. That is five thousand dollars, never a penny less. One has to be older than you are, to indulge in that sort of thing. One has to save up for it."

40. "But the love potion?" said Alan.

41. "Oh, that," said the old man, opening the drawer in the kitchen table, and taking out a tiny, rather dirty-looking phial. "That is just a dollar."

42. "I can't tell you how grateful I am," said Alan, watching him fill it.

43：老人解釋他為什麼把春藥賣得這麼便宜。

43. "I like to oblige," said the old man. "Then customers come back, later in life, when they are better off, and want more expensive things. Here you are. You will find it very effective."

（44-45：未記錄重點）

44. "Thank you again," said Alan. "Good-bye."

45. "Au revoir," said the man.

單字與閱讀（完結篇）

既然說單字，如何背單字應該是我不能略過的話題。不過，這方面或許我要讓大家失望了，因為我能想到的大概別人應該都已經提過。我能做的，充其量就是一些補充、強調和提醒。從另一方面來說，我卻有一種逆向思維。這種思考雖然無助於背單字，但起碼能讓我們在面對單字時感到快樂自在些。如果真能達到這樣的效果，也算是我野人獻曝的小貢獻。

下文中，首先要以問答的方式歸納我所知道的背單字原則和一些應該注意的要點。 接著，就是提出我的逆向思維。最後，我想對「單字與閱讀」這整個系列做一綜合的、有感而發的結論。

背單字的問與答

問：一天應該背幾個單字是比較恰當的規劃？

答：假使排除特例，也就是不算那些記憶力和毅力超強的人，一天5個單字是合理的自我要求。一個學習的通則是：貪多求快必失敗。由於一天背太多單字確實難以負荷，因此很容易讓我們順理成章地半途而廢。反之，如果說一天5個單字太多、太難以達成，這我們恐怕連自己都說服不了。持續不間斷是這個規劃的關鍵所在。所以，如果連續5天沒有進帳，到第6天再狂背30個字，這樣就違背且枉費這個方法想要達成的最終成效。更值得提醒的是，有很多事情有一就有二。有這麼一次，之後我們可能就會經常重複這種事後追加的模式。話又說回來，有人可能會覺得一天5個單字真的太少，就忍不住想多背。個人覺得，我們要是能把想背第6個單字的衝動轉化成對自己恆久堅持的鼓勵和提醒，那就不只是英文字彙的充實，更是心性休養的提昇。因為不僅僅是有宗教信仰的人，一般的人都希望能不斷地修正行為。那麼，這種一舉兩得的功夫，我們真的應該好好把握。經由這樣的過程，我們不但單字變多了，同時還學到了必要的克制和寶貴的恆心與毅力。經驗也證明，我學生當中那些忍不住一天背超過5 單字的，最後的結果是連每日5個都不再繼續了。

應該特別說明的是，一定不要小看每天5單字所可能獲得的成效。雖說滴水可以穿石、聚沙可以成塔，但那都需要漫長的耕耘和等待，這些話多少是拿來安慰人的。然而，每天5單字的成果肯定比那要快很多、具體很多。首先，一天5個單字，那麼一年就有1825個字（要是逢閏年，一年還可以多5個喔！哈哈哈！）。其次，教育部為國中生列了2000單字。而這2000字中不只有flower、bird、book、apple、banana，更有a 、an、is、am、are、do、did這些。所以我們幾乎可以說，只要學過英文，腦袋裡至少都有這2000字當中的3-500字。也就是，大部分人都可以在一年內成功背完這2000字。如此一來，我們就可以帶著這滿滿的收穫，在下次跨年時開開心心的吃大餐、玩耍、大聲喊叫，對愛我們的人討賞，對我們心愛的人瘋狂炫耀。

對於非技職體系的普通高中生，教育部的最新要求是4500單字（高職生只需3500）。這4500單字自然是原先的2000再加2500。換句話說，就算是一個0單字的高一生，只要他在升高中之後每天背5單字，都能在兩年半背完這些（因為一天5單字，兩年半就大約有4550）。這兩年半鐵定是一個報酬率超級無敵高的投資。因為在一個哪怕是本科系學生或甚至英語國家人士都少人願意扎實背單字的時代，4500單字不僅足以傲人，也能讓我們順利因應一般的聽、說、讀、寫。大家更不用擔心，一天5單字絕對可以讓你照樣開心滑手機、照樣發呆恍神、照樣睡大頭覺。不會失去什麼，而是得到更多。同時，果真能在兩年半中持續不間斷做一件事情，我們就能有更好的準備、懷著更大的信心迎接人生中下一個必要的堅持。說了這麼多，你考慮對自己說「好， 那就開始吧！」嗎？兩年半很快就會過去，我們這一生當中不是已經過了很多很多次 ，其中不少次還是不夠小心被溜掉的呢！

問：背字典或單字書提供的例句是好方法嗎？

答：是的。若能背自己造的句子，效果可能更好。學習方式和過程越友善，成效就越大。由於這是用來幫助記單字的句子，所以原則上可以不用太在意文法。如果還是不放心，那就以書上的例句為骨幹，做一些符合自身生活經驗的修改，例如把原來的主詞改為和我們相關的人、事、物等。句子不應太長、太複雜，用字也不宜太深奧，只要能突顯單字的意思就好。關於造句，最簡單的方式莫過於用單字本身的定義、功能或可能造成的影響來發揮，例如可以把microphone（麥克風）、irritate（激怒）、anxious（憂慮的；不安的）分別融入以下的例句中：

•A microphone is an instrument that makes sounds louder. （麥克風是一種讓聲音更大聲的工具）

•When you irritate a man, you make him angry. （當你激怒一個人，他會生氣）

•When a girl is anxious, she feels troubled and fearful. （當一個女孩憂慮不安時，她會感到心煩和害怕）

以這種方式造句不只方便我們記憶單字，更能提昇用英文表達或解釋英文的能力，可說一舉兩得，非常值得採用。有關單字的英文定義問題，Longman、Cambridge 、Oxford等都是可供參考查閱的權威字典。

問：哪一種單字比較好背？長的或短的？

答：首先，我們得對長短做個界定。也許8個字母或3音節以上的字算長，7個字母或2音節以下算短。若用這個標準，多數英語專業人士覺得長字較好背，我原先也這麼認為。不過，開始寫這篇文章之後，我以為只要找到方法，記憶這兩種字的難易程度可能差別不大。長字可以用音節來幫助記憶，而且這些字通常有一些固定的字母組合，例如名詞字尾的-ity、-tion、-ation、-sion、-ment、-ness，形容詞字尾的-ous、-ful、-tive等等。所以，invitation雖然有10個字母，但我們只要記清楚關鍵的invi-就很難把它忘記。從這裡也可以知道為什麼背單字一定要念出來的道理。念了才容易抓音節，抓到音節才容易記憶。

另一方面，短字雖容易和別的短字搞混，但這時候背句子的作用就出來了。此外，短字易於朗朗上口，我們不妨學幼稚園的小朋友這麼辦：「bucket bucket是水桶，basin basin是臉盆，towel towel是毛巾。」也可以倒過來念：「水桶、水桶是bucket…。」這樣背單字也很好玩，不是嗎？

問：字根、字首有幫助嗎？

答：如果只是要背教育部的4500單字，這未必需要。但假如面對長字、新創字、較為專門的用語，或者要大量背單字，它則頗為有用。

問：要怎樣確保背過的單字不再忘記？

答：要想永遠不忘是不可能的。否則，我看過的單字何其多，我又是別人眼中記憶力超強的人，現在的單字量一定有個8萬10萬的，但我相信沒有。讓背過的字忘得慢一點、少一點是唯一能做的。廣義而言，多做聽、說、讀、寫是王道，這層道理不言可喻。若說到單純的複習，那就是用「可惡指數」把背過的單字分等級，千萬別每次都從背過的第一個字複習到最後一個。那樣做注意力會被分散，應該集中火力對付那些難搞、一忘再忘的字。相信每個人都有這樣的經驗，有些東西我們其實並沒有特別去記，但就是不容易忘。相反地，有些我們很用力記的，卻老是記不起來。單字也一 樣。所以，我們要用可惡指數把單字分級，可惡指數越高的就得經常複習；可惡指數最低的，偶而關心一下就可以，如此一來才比較有可能多記一些單字。

一個逆向思維

說了這麼多，或許有人依舊覺得背單字有困難、或仍懶於背單字。對於這樣的人，我的建議是：不要怕字彙不足，開心了就多背，不想背就不要勉強。隨緣而背，隨性而活，歡喜自在過人生。英文的學習，無疑地充實字彙是上策，但自在地面對自己的字彙不豐是中策。不能或不想擴充字彙卻時時掛慮自己的單字量才是下策。假如能充份應用本身擁有的字彙，英文還是能有一定的表現。先就口語表達來說，太難的字也不討好。說到很多人擔心的各種英文相關考試，字少也未必是成敗關鍵。既然不願背單字是趨勢，Vocabulary相關大題大家的分數應該相差不多。至於文法與閱讀，單字也許更不是重點。但為免造成誤導，這方面恕我不能解釋得太過清楚。畢竟，方法用對地方叫做訣竅或技巧，用錯地方則變成取巧。即使對私下上我課的學生，當談到這個話題時我也一再提醒，絕對不能濫用我所教的方法。但儘管我不多說，已讀過本系列第二篇的讀者一定也能知道單字在閱讀中的角色。

總之，花兩年半就能有很好的字彙能力，所以最好是背單字。何況在此多數人不願多背的年代，你只要多努力那麼一點就會比人家強很多。如果這些都無法打動你，那就自在以對，不要半調子，那是最苦自己的選擇。

結語

有單字可以背是幸福的。高中聽空中英語教室和今日美語，聽眾都有書，節目中自然不會把單字拼出來。節目幾乎是全英文，加上我沒有教材，其實幾乎聽不懂。但我還是聽，為的是那偶而拼出的單字。有一次在今日美語中聽到dinosaur（恐龍），從空中英語教室中聽到彭蒙惠老師把humid（潮濕的）拼了出來。那種驚喜、那種感動，在相隔40年後的今天仍清晰在心。好希望節目中能多拼幾個字，可惜通常都失望。

曾有學生向我表示他們的閱讀速度太慢。他們不知道，我即使不是臺灣英文還可以的人當中最有資格抱怨閱讀速度不夠快的人，肯定也是其中之一。箇中原由學過特殊教育（尤其是視障教育）的人都了解，加上篇幅考量，就不贅述。簡單說，那牽涉到盲人點字的結構。而我所說的我的閱讀速度慢，自然是相較於和我有關係的人。講白一點，就是我的同行。博士班第一學期，我們讀了一篇非常困難的文學評論。臨上課前，同學對我說：「讀第一遍時我完全不懂，但第二遍時就有些懂了。」聽到這，我一方面為他高興，但同時也感到無限挫折。閱讀速度快不了加上文章困難，我連讀一遍都很拼，重讀根本是奢望。無比沮喪地，我把這事告訴大學的一位恩師。她說：「可是，如果讓你的閱讀速度也跟我們一樣，我們還能混嗎？」聽了她的話，我到現在為止都還不知道是該高興呢？還是該更沮喪？無論如何，當大家覺得自己的閱讀太慢時，一定要記得有一個人將永遠地陪伴著大家。但更可能的事實是，你有充份的機會不再需要我陪！

從確認主、動詞到提升閱讀效率

教學經驗發現，哪怕是英文還不錯的學生都有可能對確認英文句子的主、動詞感到困難。他們有時無法說出其中之一，也有的甚至兩者都找不出來。試想，假如連句子基本元素的確認都有問題，又如何奢談精準和有效的閱讀呢？這就是本文關注的焦點所在。現在就讓我們來看看以下5個句子的主、動詞在哪裡：

1. Looking at the issue of human cloning as a matter of reproductive technology choice, although it focuses on individual autonomy, reproductive freedom, and protection of children, means that other issues are omitted. --"Should Human Cloning Be Permitted?" Patricia A. Baird

因為although到children的部份是附屬子句，而主詞必然在主要子句，所以這串文字完全不用考慮，當然也不應說主詞是it，動詞是focuses。而我們又知道動名詞可以當主詞，且在這種情形下得用單數動詞。於是，答案出來了：主詞是從Looking 到choice，動詞是means。這句話的大意是，複製人問題必須全方位思考，不能單單考慮繁衍下一代這個層面。

2. That 1990s were also the decade in which globalization came into full swing is more than a minor inconvenience for its advocates. --"Globalization for Whom?" Dani Rodrick

或許有人會說：主詞當然是1990s，動詞是were。那麼，is是誰的動詞？又該怎麼解釋That？主詞也不可能是globalization，它是由which引導的關係子句的主詞，came是子句動詞。到這裡我們應該已經了解，絕對不能看到一個名詞後面跟著一個動詞，就理所當然地認定它們就是整個句子的主、動詞－英文有那麼簡單就好了－它們非常有可能是副詞子句、形容詞子句或名詞子句的主、動詞。其實，這個句子的主詞是一個名詞子句。和動名詞當主詞的情形一樣，得用單數動詞。所以，主詞是從That到swing，動詞是is，were則是名詞子句主詞1990s的動詞。假如我們看到句子以That開始，後面馬上出現看似主詞和動詞的結構（1990s were），之後又有另外的單數動詞（is），那麼這個句子十之八九就是名詞子句當主詞，這樣的That應該解釋為the fact that。也許這個例子有些專業和複雜，我們不妨用一個比較簡單的例子，大家就能更清楚這種結構了：That he is very kind is well known. （他很仁慈眾所周知。）至於原本那個句子是出自一篇反思經濟全球化的文章。作者認為，假如全球化真的那麼好，世界經濟在1990年代就應該是一片榮景才對，因為那正是全球化推展最如火如荼的10年。然而，那同時也是大部分開發中國家挫折與失望的10年， 這對全球化倡導者來說恐怕不是一項普通的尷尬。這就是本句想要傳達的和它的一些相關背景。

3. At the heart of Buddhism lies the belief that all beings are inherently equal.

首先，無論句子有多長、多複雜，絕對不能把介系詞片語中的名詞看成主詞。相信大家不會說At either side of the road stand many trees.中的side或road是主詞，同樣的就不應該把本例的heart看成主詞，heart都不是了，形容它的of Buddhism 的Buddhism自然更不可能。同時，形容詞子句that all beings…也不用考慮。東扣西扣，想不知道答案好像都不行：主詞belief，動詞lies。這也是個倒裝的句型（眾生本來平等是佛法的核心）。

4. President Chen Shui-bian's defiant remarks, delivered little more than a week after he was shot in the abdomen and suffered a flesh wound while waving at supporters from his motorcade, signaled an intent to carry his campaign's tough line toward China into a second term despite the deep divide his approach has created in Taiwanese society and the unease it has caused in the Bush administration. --"Taiwan's President Maintains Hard Line" Philip P. Pan and David E. Hoffman. Washington Post

4、5兩句的來源都是2004年阿扁總統連任成功後不久接受華盛頓郵報的訪問，第5句最後的ibid是拉丁文「同上」的意思。第4句的大意是—阿扁的話顯示，他執意把強硬的抗中路線延續到第二任期，縱使那將引發臺灣社會的嚴重分裂和布希政府的不安。相信大家都知道句子的主詞是remarks。至於動詞則是第二個逗點之後的signaled，delivered到motorcade的這一大串是修飾remarks的過去分詞片語，用來說明阿扁的話是什麼時候說的。要注意如果主詞之後就有兩個逗點夾了一大串文字，那麼動詞幾乎絕不會是緊接在第一個逗點後面的那個字，也通常不會是第二個主要逗點之前的任何動詞，而是第二個主要逗點後面的那個。為什麼要強調「主要逗點」呢？因為中間可能會有列舉平行內容時放上去的、功能類似中文頓號的其它逗點，例如第1例中although到children之間，autonomy和freedom後面的逗點都不是第二個主要逗點，children之後的才是。第二個主要逗點的觀念非常有用，因為一、二兩逗點之間的內容經常是相對次要的細節，閱讀時能讀懂最好，若有困難也可以暫時略過，當考閱讀測驗時遇到這樣的內容更應該用最快的速度讀過去，這是促進閱讀效率非常重要的技巧。有人應該會說：可是考題也許就藏在這些次要的細節裡。這當然有可能，但相信做閱讀測驗時大家都會先看題目再看文章，如此一來即使有這種情況也不應該是問題。總之，快速掃過細節才是提昇閱讀效率的王道。

5. Chen, who appeared relaxed and confident during a one-hour interview inside the presidential palace, denied unsubstantiated charges by his opponents that he engaged in election fraud and staged the shooting the day before the March 20 election to win sympathy from voters.--ibid

有了處理例4的經驗，要找出範例5的主、動詞自然不是問題。主詞是Chen，動詞是denied，句子的大意是阿扁否認關於他選舉舞弊和自導自演319槍擊案的指控。4、5兩例共同顯示的是，當看到兩個逗點夾一大串文字時我們不只不應該心煩或亂了方寸，反倒應該為能在緊張、緊湊的閱讀中稍做紓緩而感到開心。

如果單一句子的細節都要盡快掠過，一整個段落中的細節自然更得如此。看看以下這個出自Economist中"Generation Jobless"一文的段落：

(M)ore young people are idle than ever. OECD figures suggest that 26m 15- to 24-year-olds in developed countries are not in employment, education or training; the number of young people without a job has risen by 30% since 2007. The International Labour Organization reports that 75m young people globally are looking for a job. World Bank surveys suggest that 262m young people in emerging markets are economically inactive. Depending on how you measure them, the number of young people without a job is nearly as large as the population of America (311m).

"Generation Jobless"主要在探討大約從2011年以來全球年輕人失業的嚴重情況，其嚴重情形可由上述段落看出。由此可知，上段的重點就只有第一句（「現在年輕人無所事事的人數比以往都多」），以下各句都屬佐證，應該很快讀過去。至於閱讀測驗可能把題目出在那些細節的因應之道前面已經說過，不再重複。

最後，我想說一下面對英文寫作和閱讀時一個態度方面的關鍵差異。大體上說，議論性的文章是觀點和細節的組合，後者的比重又遠遠超過前者。假設一篇文章有100句話，其中97句話是細節，觀點只佔3句。所以，當我們寫不出文章時，多半不是沒有想法，而是缺乏資料、數據和例子。很多精彩文章所以精彩常常不是由於它的觀點特別，而是其豐富的舉證和多方面、多角度的切入探討，真正觀點獨特的文章有時並不討好。話雖如此，寫文章的人學問越大、經驗越豐富，引用的細節就越廣泛多元，以致讓讀者迷惑和困擾在閱讀中。因此，寫文章時要做的努力是找出97句話來證明我們的3句話是對的，讀文章時則要精準讀出其中作為主軸的3句話，至於另外的97句能讀懂越多當然越好，一時讀不懂的則應該先掠過，不要執著。這是閱讀和書寫非常重要的不同，祝大家往後都能讀得通、讀得快、寫得輕鬆、寫得好。

多個形容詞並列時的排序問題

當一個名詞同時被多個形容詞修飾時，誰該在前、誰該在後呢？幾個月前，有學生希望我對此做討論。其實，這個題目補教界名師旋元佑先生在他的文法書裡已經有很棒的說明。這裡，我大致也是沿用旋老師的說法，只不過稍做補充和多些例句而已。(旋元佑老師文法書: https://yamol.tw/examdata/1020651811-1404828509-0429aa11e7fcf34879cd2166eb715fb3.pdf )

旋老師指出，當名詞同時被數個形容詞修飾時，越是客觀、越不可能改變、越能顯示該名詞屬性的形容詞，就應該越靠近它。但要注意的是，如one、two、three、some、several等描述數量的形容詞通常被排在第一順位，因為數量固然是個客觀描述，卻是很可能被改變或一定會被改變的。比方說，一個15歲的少女明年必定是16歲，過了20年則不僅是35歲，也很可能是一個身為人母的女性了。

例：We have sold our 80-year-old beautiful large Japanese wood house.

上句中，80-year-old是屋齡(量)，所以排第一。「木造」是房子的根本屬性，所以最接近house。房子的建造風格Japanese也很客觀和具代表性，所以緊跟著wood。相較之下，large又比beautiful客觀，所以得更接近house。

其它例子：

My mother graduated from a prestigious old Austrian music school.

I have thrown away that dirty old yellow silk scarf.

My father has two lovely old blue ashtrays.

She is selling her 2-year-old flashy American car.

The living room has five small square plastic chairs.

I bought a few charming Chinese silver ornaments at the flea market.

當然，價值判斷有時也見仁見智。例如吃同一頓飯的某甲如果覺得它是很盛大隆重，但美味可不一定，就會說：

It was a delicious big meal.

反之，某乙則認為這一餐也許未必盛大，但美味應屬無庸置疑，就會說：

It was a big delicious meal.

談到形容詞與名詞的關係，我想附帶提一下為什麼便利商店叫convenience store ，不叫convenient store？原因是convenience store是一種特殊的店。因此，我們自家樓下的早餐店是我們的convenient store，但它卻不能稱做convenience store。相反地，離我們家4、500公尺遠的7-11或全家雖然沒有樓下早餐店那麼convenient，卻是一家不折不扣的convenience store。總之，假如某一名詞的特性得藉由前一個字的描述才能充份顯現，那麼這個字就得用名詞而非形容詞，類似convenience store的例子還有music teacher、flower shop、disaster movie、grammar book、science fiction等等。如果名詞前面的字是標準的形容詞（例如large、kind、round等），這種形容詞通常只是在描述該名詞，而不是在突顯它的特性，有時去掉也沒關係。例如kind teacher的kind可以不說，但music teacher的music一旦被省略了，這種老師的特性就顯現不出來了，因為我們無法知道他究竟是教什麼。

主詞與動詞的一致

一、主動詞一致的兩個考量參考

英文中主詞有第一、二、三人稱及單、複數的區別，動詞雖沒有類似區別，卻得隨主詞的人稱或數做字形變化，這就是主動詞的一致（subject-verb agreement）。

感覺起來，一般人對主動詞一致的重視程度似乎明顯不及時態或假設語氣等。然而，無論是考試或書寫，主動詞一致出錯的頻率可能要多過假設語氣或時態這些公認的文法難題。我們之所以對主動詞一致相對輕忽，是因為這種錯誤主要是誤選動詞並不顯眼（例如該選is卻選are），不像其它方面的文法錯誤那麼引人注意。另外，由於主動詞一致牽涉較廣，認定上也不免有些見仁見智，因此幾乎每本文法書對於這個主題都有不同的取捨和角度，故也難免疏漏。當然，這裡的探討或許也不完整。歸根究底地說，關於主動詞一致，理出其用法的基本精神和邏輯才是務實可行的方向。

當句子的動詞前面出現兩個名詞（代名詞也算），造成動詞選擇的困擾，讓我們無法決定該以哪個名詞（或代名詞）為基準選取動詞，是主動詞一致的癥結所在。事實上，這個問題並不難解決。如果一個（代）名詞符合以下兩個條件之一，我們就要以它為基準選擇動詞的單複數。這兩個條件是：1. 是否為關鍵名詞。2. 是否引發聽者或讀者較多的興趣。以此二者為參考基準，不少主動詞一致的問題都可以解決。以下分別說明：

A. 關鍵名詞：

1. 有些片語同時可以修飾單數和複數名詞，那麼這些被修飾的名詞（不是片語中的名詞）才是決定動詞單、複數的關鍵的所在。也就是說，當這些片語修飾單數名詞時動詞用單數，修飾複數名詞時就用複數。這樣的片語主要包括：

a. all of:

•All of the students have gone on the trip.

•All of the money has been put in the bank.

b. half of:

•Half of the books are written in German.

•Half of the movie was very boring.

c. most of/ part of/ some of/ a lot of/ lots of/ plenty of:

•Most of my high school classmates are in college now.

•Most of his knowledge is obtained from reading books.

•Part of the workers are still on strike.

•Part of the problem lies in education.

•Some of the excitement at a Lakers game occurs off the basketball floor.

•Some of the fans find the movie stars at Lakers games more interesting than the game.

•A lot of/ Lots of/ Plenty of tourists were visiting the museum.

•A lot of/ Lots of/ Plenty of sugar is produced in this island.

d. the majority of:

•The majority of William Wordsworth's poetry concerns nature.

•The majority of Wordsworth's significant poems were composed before 1807.

e. the percentage of:

•The percentage of gainers on the New York Stock Exchange were greater this week than last.

•The percentage of time students now spend on studies is much lower than ever.

f. the rest of:

•John is really generous, but the rest of his siblings are quite stingy.

•I'll eat some bread, and the rest (of it) is for you.

g. 出現分數(1/2, 2/3)時：

•One fifth of the workers do not have their own houses.

•Two thirds of the land belongs to Mr. Wang.

也許有人會由於上述列舉的片語太過龐雜而感到頭大，但不用擔心，因為這些片語其實有個通性，就是都是在描述成員或成份在一個整體中的佔比（一半、大多數、全部等），所以無須費心強記。此外，可同時修飾單、複數名詞的片語相信不會只有上述這些。總之，大家只要記得一個基本原則：當學到一個描述名詞數量的新片語時，先要確定它（成員或成份）是否可同時修飾單、複數名詞（整體）。如果可以，套用以上原則（單數名詞用單數動詞，複數名詞用複數動詞）準沒錯。

2. 反之，假如修飾名詞的是一個計量單位，例如a pair of、a series of、a set of、a string of、a list of、a collection of等，這時關鍵名詞是這些量詞而不是其修飾的名詞。這個道理也不難理解，想想鞋店賣鞋子是一雙雙還是一隻隻算就知道了。所以，雖然a group of中的group看起來也像量詞，但我們應該把它看成一個修飾複數名詞的片語，意思類似many。首先，我們很少一個group一個group這樣算人或東西。再者，當我們看到一大群人時通常還是會把焦點放在人數，算算看究竟有多少人，所以關鍵名詞是人而不是group。這又是一個文法很多時候還是得回歸邏輯和情理的例子：

•A pair of shoes is left outside the door.

•Three pairs of shoes are left outside the door.

•A series of lectures is scheduled.

•Two series of lectures are scheduled: one for experts and one for laypeople.

•A string of activities is designed to encourage people to communicate directly with each other.

•A list of eligible candidates was posted on the bulletin board.

•A list of the amendments that will be on Tuesday's ballot is on the front page of the morning paper.

•A collection of letters, bills, and advertisements was waiting for me when I finally got back from my tour of Quebec.

•A group of children are playing joyfully in the park.

3. 句子的主詞之後若緊接著一個介系詞片語，這個片語通常修飾主詞，片語中的名詞自然不是關鍵，動詞的單複數依舊取決於當主詞的名詞：

•The price of NBA tickets is high.

•The fans at an NBA game are noisy.

•Monkeys in this national park are a menace to visitors.

•Those hunters with their dog were out of sight.

•The hunter with his dogs was out of sight.

•Nobody but (= except) the stubbornest people insists on the old rules.

4. 主詞之後若有由not或rather than等引導的否定詞，既然是否定詞，它們之後所接的名詞已經被否定掉就應該不是關鍵，動詞的單、複數還是要看否定詞前面的名詞：

•You, not your brother, are to blame for this mistake.

•His works, not the artist, are now on exhibition.

•John, rather than his parents, needs to be responsible for the matter.

5. 句首的There或Here是虛主詞，是虛的當然也不會是關鍵。當句子出現它們時先別著急，繼續往下讀，緊接著be動詞或一般動詞之後的名詞（介系詞片語中的名詞除外）通常就是主詞。若動詞之後的名詞為單數就用單數動詞，複數則用複數動詞：

•There is a men's NBA team in Houston.

•There are two NBA teams in Los Angeles.

•There is in many countries much unrest today. （in many countries是介系詞片語，故countries不是主詞）

•Here is your coffee.

•Here are the tickets you want.

6. 形容詞子句（關係子句）的關係詞who、which或that假如當主詞用，後面的動詞單複數需依子句所修飾的名詞（先行詞）而定。如果先行詞是單數，關係詞後面的動詞也要用單數；先行詞是複數，關係詞後面的動詞也是複數：

•I like people who talk less and do more.

•He has three options, which look equally attractive. （which指options）

•He has three options, which is a good thing. （which指他有三種選項這件事情）

•She is one of those doctors who make house calls.

•Dr. Stephens is one of those professors who lecture in an entertaining way.

•She is the only professor who does what it takes to help her students learn joyfully.

B. 較引起興趣的名詞：either... or..., neither... nor...和not only... but (also)...這3組連接詞，很多文法書和老師都這麼教我們：以比較接近動詞的主詞為準，哪個主詞如果是單數動詞就用單數，是複數動詞就用複數。方法本無好壞，簡單說，能促進學習記憶的方法就是好方法。只是有另外2組連接詞的用法正好和either... or等相反，就是as well as和no less than。假如碰到A as well as/ no less than B的結構，動詞的單、複數卻得取決於較先出現的主詞A。把這2組連接詞和先前3組一起學，硬記它們的用法差別就顯得不牢靠，也就是難保不忘記。所以，我想從哪個主詞較引起興趣的角度幫助學習者記好這幾組連接詞的使用方式。就語言學而言，這個方法自然不夠精準客觀，但如果它可能讓我們更有效地記住這5組連接詞的用法，還是值得參酌。

1. either... or..., neither... nor..., not only... but (also).... 就功能方面說，這3組連接詞之外，還要加上單獨使用的or。本質上這些連接詞前後的名詞位階差不多，說其中一個是關鍵有些牽強，但如果說它們所連接的第二個名詞可能較能引起興趣或被強調。其中最明顯的是not only... but (also)....當我們說某人「不但聰明而且用功」時，表示我們對這個人的這兩種特質同樣佩服，但可能更敬佩他的用功。既然是比較被強調的名詞，動詞的單複數以此為準是可以理解的。理解通過了，硬記硬背就可以避免。這樣的感覺either... or...等較不明顯，但也不是完全沒有。因為當我們說「不是…就是…」的時候，那個「就是…」後面的名詞也許給人更多的好奇和想像，動詞的使用以它為依據也可以成例：

•Either I or you were wrong.

•Either the teacher or the students need to be responsible for the matter.

•Either the students or the teacher needs to be responsible for the matter.

•Either you or she has heard the bell ring.

•Either Paul or his parents were able to attend the meeting.

•Neither you nor she was allowed to leave.

•Neither the soldiers nor the general has eaten anything for 3 days.

•Neither Jack nor I am playing basketball.

•Not only the employer but (also) the employees are very selfish.

•Not only the passengers but also the driver was injured.

•Not only my house but also the neighbors' houses were searched by police.

•John or his sisters are going to attend the meeting.

•Does he or his friends want to go?

上述的最後一例值得稍加說明。如果根據「較引起興趣」的原則，這個句子好像應該寫成Do he or his friends....但是，就如先前所說，這個原則的基礎是一般言語互動的默契而非學理，它的建立動機也只是為了盡可能讓學習者從理解的角度熟悉文法。姑且不論Do he是奇怪的表達，我們只要把句子完全展開，就知道為什麼應該用does了：

•Does he want to go or do his friends want to go?

2. as well as和no less than。A as well as/ no less than B的結構較單純， 因為它們的意思是A之外附帶一提B。既然B只不過是被附帶提出，自然不會是動詞單、複數依循的標準。as well as/ no less than B的前後甚至可以用逗點夾住，也就是即使把這部份的內容刪除也無大礙。所以，「使用這兩組連接詞時先出現的主詞A是動詞單、複數選擇的關鍵」其實是多此一說的：

•The employees as well as the employer are very selfish.

•The driver as well as the passengers was able to get out of the bus before it began to burn.

•You want to borrow money? But I, as well as you, am broke.

•I, no less than you, am involved in this case.

二、動詞需用單數的情形

A. one of/ every, each (of)/ either (of)/ neither (of)和many a:

•One of my sisters goes to the market every morning.

•One of the NBA's biggest stars is LeBron James.

•Every day is a new beginning.

•Every boy and every girl loves the teacher.

•Each participant is entitled to a memorial pin.

•Each of the participants is entitled to a memorial pin.

•Each of the NBA players is a well-trained athlete.

•Either way is fine with me.

•Either of the ways is fine with me.

•Neither solution looks attractive.

•Neither of the solutions looks attractive.

•Many a tourist has visited our town this year.

•Many a passenger was free from any injury in this train accident.

B. 不定詞片語、動名詞或名詞子句當主詞時：

•To see her is to love her.

•How to prevent diseases is worth studying.

•To hunt/ Hunting bears is dangerous.

•Smoking is an awful habit.

•That he owns a lot of books does not mean that he has read all of them.

•What I need is your word.

C. 句中有連接詞and的情形：

1. 當and連接兩個名詞做主詞用時，兩個名詞是否都有冠詞往往是動詞單複數的決定關鍵。如果只有第一個名詞前面有冠詞，表示and連接的是同樣的人、事或物，動詞自然用單數；如果兩個名詞前面都有冠詞，表示and連接的項目真的有兩個，動詞就用複數：

•The dancer and singer is beautiful.

•The senator and delegate wants to make an announcement.

•A cup and saucer was placed on the table. （指一組杯具）

•A blue and white shirt is on the floor. （一件衣服，兩種顏色）

•The dancer and the singer are beautiful.

•The senator and the delegate want to make an announcement.

•A cup and a dish were placed on the table. （一個杯子和一個菜盤子個別看待）

•A blue and a white shirt are on the floor. （兩件不同顏色的衣服）

2. 即使and連接的表面上看起來是兩個項目，但如果這兩個項目實質上是一個東西或一件事情，這麼一來，動詞還是得用單數：

•Chocolate and milk is my favorite. （指巧克力牛奶，「一種」飲品）

•Chocolate and milk have both risen in price. （指巧克力和牛奶這「兩種」東西都漲價）

•All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. （只知工作不知玩樂「這種」生活模式）

•Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.--Benjamin Franklin （早睡早起「這種」作息）

D. 金錢、時間、距離或其它表示數量的詞，雖然很多時候是複數，但既然是「一個」量，動詞用單數是可以理解的。同時，從這裡我們也不難明白何以在含有定量時間或距離等的句子中會經常出現不定冠詞a或an：

•For that rich girl, two million dollars is only a small sum of money!

•Seven years is a time long enough for a person to achieve something great.

•Five kilometers is not too long a distance to walk in one hour.

•Three pounds of brown sugar is quite enough for now.

E. 許多學科名稱雖然字尾是-ics，但依舊得用單數動詞。不過，統計學statistics如果是指統計數據或統計資料，動詞就要用複數。如果是指單筆資料， 字尾的s也可以去掉，這時動詞當然又得用單數：

•Physics is the study of matter and natural forces.

•Mathematics is difficult for most students.

•Statistics draws heavily on mathematics.

•This statistic is quite accurate.

•These statistics are mostly accurate.

F. news、billiards和measles要接單數動詞：

•The news is very exciting.

•Billiards is a popular game.

•Measles is a contagious disease.

G. 加減乘除的四則運算動詞用單數或複數都可以，但一般用單數：

•Four and four is (are)/ makes (make)/ equals (equal) eight.

•Fifteen minus six equals nine.

•Two times three is six.

•Twelve divided by six is two.

有些讀者或許會感覺，這個部份所列的項目太繁雜，不容易記憶。不過，儘管它們看似林林總總、互不相關，其實幾乎都能歸結到一個「一」的概念，例如每一、兩者之中的任一、兩數加減乘除後得到的是「一個結果」、同一個人兼有兩種身分也還是一，諸如此類等等。既然是一，動詞自然用單數。以這種角度去理解，相信會減少許多硬記硬背的功夫。

三、動詞用複數、單數皆可或其它

A. 動詞需用複數的情形：

1. a number of：許多文法書在介紹這個片語或限定詞時，幾乎都會同時提到the number of這個用法，然後告訴讀者：a number of後面要用複數動詞，the number of後面用單數，並好心地提醒讀者不要搞錯。可惜的是，許多讀者還是常常搞錯，因為文法書多半會在有意無意之間造成讀者一種印象，就是上述用法是例外、很特別，大家努力記下來就是。然而，無論就語意或語法看，這兩種用法是既不例外也不特別。就語意上說，a number of = many。many後面接複數名詞，複數名詞如果當主詞用就得接複數動詞。如果many books當主詞，後面就得用複數動詞，那麼a numbr of books當主詞時自然也得比照辦理。至於the number of所指的是一個單一的數字，不管它是50、500或5000，就是「一個」數字。一個蘋果、一根香蕉如果當主詞，後面用的就是單數動詞，那麼「一個數字」當主詞後面還是用單數動詞。就語法看，既然a number of是一個片語，我們就不應該只看number這個名詞，何況這個限定詞的功能類似形容詞，被形容的複數名詞才是關鍵，才能決定動詞的單複數是理所當然的。而the number of something其中的of something是介系詞片語，不能決定動詞的單複數（關於這點我們在本單元第一部份已經說過），決定權是真正的主詞number，它是單數，句子的動詞自然用的也是單數：

•A number of passengers were foreigners.

•A number of students were absent from school yesterday.

•The number of passengers was unknown.

•The number of students in this class is 49.

2. cattle（牛群；牲口）和riches（財富）用複數動詞。如果要指牛的頭數，可用head。但不管有多少頭牛，head都不加s：

•Their cattle are taken care of by six cowboys.

•Several (head of) cattle were missing.

•Riches often take wings and fly away.

•Great riches have made him forget who he was.

B. 動詞單、複數皆可的情形：

1. 集合名詞：集合名詞是指由一群人所構成的群體或其中的成員，例如family、committee、public、crew、crowd等。一般來說，如果是指該群體本身，動詞用單數；如果指群體的所有成員，動詞則用複數。例如Her family are all doctors（ 她所有的家人都是醫生），補語doctors明確指出這裡說的是所有家人，動詞自然得用複數are。但除了這種情形之外，集合名詞後面該接單數或複數動詞有模糊地帶，也就是很多時候兩者都可以。另外，family指「家人」時沒有複數形，families指的是一個以上的家庭：

•Our family is very large.

•My family has lived in this house for about 50 years.

•My family are all sitting around the round table.

•My family are all asleep.

•Most families have televisions.

•The committee was founded in 1980, so it has quite a bit of history now.

•Our committee meets/ meet again tomorrow afternoon.

•The committee are mostly seated now, and they are impatient to begin.

2. none of：none of可接不可數名詞和可數名詞的複數。接不可數名詞時，動詞自然用單數；接可數名詞的複數時，動詞用單複數皆可：

•None of the meat was left.

•None of the sandwiches was/ were fresh.

3. media、data、bacteria、whereabouts、headquarters：

•The media has/ have been reporting this murder for days.

•This data is/ These data are quite out-of-date.

•Not all bacteria causes/ cause disease.

•The missing child's whereabouts is/ are still unknown.

•The headquarters of our company is/ are in Taipei.

C. 注意damage和damages的不同。damage的意思是「損害」，不可數名詞； damages是「賠償金」，複數的可數名詞：

•The damage caused by the typhoon was not very serious.

•The damages asked by the victim's family were quite high.

在結束本文之前，讓我來說個原本不該說的秘密。關於主詞與動詞的一致問題，我們首先得記得碰到cattle和riches時動詞得用複數，並心領神會像either... or...、 not only... but also...等成套連接詞的動詞使用原則，這麼之後要是在考試時依舊出現難以抉擇的情況，賭單數的勝算會明顯比賭複數高。不過，這是個不得已時的權宜訣竅，請大家千萬不要擴大使用喔！

你其實可以不頭疼­—一個關於現在簡單式的文法問題

談到現在簡單式時，文法書都會列出一條規則，說「當主要子句是由will所引導的未來式時，由after, when, before, as soon as, until等引導的附屬子句得用現在簡單式表示未來」。其實，這條規則肯定可以輕鬆記、自在學，並達到想要出錯也難的程度。從以下例子可以知道，這些連接詞所引導的附屬子句所描述的事件，不是比含有will的主要子句陳述的事件更可能發生（如例1），就是更為關鍵重要（如例2）。

•She'll see you before she leaves.

•We'll give it to her when she arrives.

•Helen will take care of her mother until she marries.

•I will tell you a secret as soon as you come.

•I will try to contact her after I go to The United States.

在第1句中，女生要走即使不是必然，至少也比去看you更為可能，她也許會因為遺忘或改變行程等原因而沒有實現看you的計畫。我們不能因為只要有個will， 就認為未來一定會發生某事。氣象局說it will rain tomorrow，明天就一定會下雨嗎？有時不只不會，甚至還晴空萬里、陽光普照呢！只要是未來就一定有變數，這是不言可喻的。至於第2句，女生來了人家才會把東西給她，不來就不會給，她來或不來是we給不給東西的關鍵和條件，所以這裡的when意思和if差不多。其他句子的道理和前兩句大致一樣，不再贅述。總之，機率明顯較高（甚至是必然）或關鍵的事情用現在簡單式表達是很可以理解的。事實上，現在簡單式所強調的不變也只不過是個相對的概念，不是絕對。

一個有抽菸習慣的人可能很快就戒煙，甚至連科學家或許都不敢說地球會永遠由西向東轉，遑論其他現象。理解沒問題了，死記規則就不必要，學英文也自然更沒有負擔、更不會出錯。 

現在完成式與過去簡單式的判別

要正確理解這兩種時態，先得建立一個非常重要的觀念。那就是，雖然現在完成式有著「現在」兩個字，但它所描寫的事件未必比用過去簡單式所描寫的事件更晚發生（未必真的更接近現在）。舉個例說，發生在半小時前的事件A可能用過去簡單式，但發生在3天前的事件B（明顯的比事件A離現在遠）卻可能用現在完成式，這兩種時態究竟該用哪一種的關鍵是你想強調什麼重點而不是事件發生的確切時間。這樣說如果還不夠清楚，以下的情境應該可以進一步釐清現在完成式和過去簡單式的不同：星期二老師出了一份作業，要同學得在下星期一晚上10點以前把結果email給她。隔週星期一晚上10點剛過，Helen在線上密了同班同學John和Tom，問他們：

•Have you emailed the homework?

對Helen來說，她關心的是好朋友有沒有在deadline之前把作業寄給老師（結果）。只要沒有遲交，什麼時候（事件細節）交並不重要，所以用現在完成式問她的同學。而John上次因為沒有準時交作業所以遭到老師拒收，他為了強調這次交是交了，但其實還是很驚險，於是就用過去簡單式回答，交代他交作業的時間：

•Oh yes, I emailed it ten minutes ago.

再說Tom, 事實上他上個星期三下午就已經把作業做好，而且email給老師，但他向來低調，又不願讓John覺得太尷尬，於是就把這個時間細節（比John交作業的時間早多的過去時間）隱而不說，只交代在截稿（現在）以前交了，於是就用現在完成式回答Helen:

•Yes, I have emailed it.

以上解釋，希望有助於大家對現在完成式和過去簡單式的判別。簡單說，面對同一件發生在過去的事情，如果你想告訴別人那件事情的發生時間，那就要用過去簡單式，如果你沒有要說這個時間，那就要用現在完成式。再說一個例子：當你寫文章時，如果你要提醒讀者「就像我說過的」，因為沒有提到時間，所以你應該說As I have said，但假如你要說「就像我先前說過的」，那就應該說As I said it earlier。“earlier”是一個代表「過去」的時間細節，自然應當用過去簡單式。

最後必須提醒的是，語言千變萬化，靈活而有彈性。因此，我們不可能用一些簡單的原則化約語言的整體樣貌。很多時候，常理和語意邏輯也很重要。比方說，用過去簡單式敘述一件事情就非把那件事情的發生時間說出來不可嗎？當然不是。例如，有位小姐覺得她過去愛了不該愛的人。那麼可想而知，她一定非常希望把自己現在的生活和如此不堪回首的往事切割，所以應該不會說：I have loved him（現在完成式）。然而，即使非提這件傷心事不可，小姐想必也不想提太多細節，這些她不願提的事情當中也許就包括戀愛時間。因此，小姐最可能的說法是：I loved him。綜上所說，關於現在完成式和過去簡單式可以歸納出以下結論：如果要把一件過去事件的發生時間說出，一定要用過去簡單式；假如不說，用過去簡單式當然也可以，但這種情形通常會用現在完成式。擴大的說，任何語言的文法並不如大家想像的冷冰冰，更多時候它是親切且合乎人情之常的。

過去完成式的誤用與恰用

上了幾年的寫作課，經常見到學生寫出類似以下結構的句子：

•He had finished his work.

乍看之下這個句子好像沒問題，但它其實大大違反過去完成式的基本精神。學生所以會那樣寫，是因為他們把現在和過去兩種完成式混為一談。但由於現在完成式強調的是到現在為止某件事情究竟是否發生，也就是before now那件事情有沒有發生。但過去完成式說的是在過去某個特定的時間點（上個月、去年、昨天）之前某件事情是否發生過，是一個before then的概念。由此可知，上面提到的那句話的問題就在那個必要的then不見了，從例句我們無法知道某人到底是在什麼時間以前完成他的工作。如果這樣說就可以了：

•He had finished his work before going on holiday yesterday.

去度假是昨天（過去特定的時間點then)，then有了，工作在then（去度假的昨天）以前就已經完成(before yesterday/ then)，自然要用過去完成式。

不過，在文學作品的閱讀中，我們有時會讀到一些看起來沒有before then的描寫。其實，那個then依舊存在。比方說，在某個故事一開頭作者這麼寫到：

•Three years ago, John went to America on business.

於是我們知道，這個故事發生在3年前。接著，作者告訴我們John在紐約見到一個女孩，並以為他們是第一次碰面。但作者說：

•In fact, he had seen her.

這表示John在3年前去美國之前(before then)就見過那女孩，這種情形和前面那 句沒有before then的"He had finished his work"不同，自然應該用過去完成式。

因此，過去完成式一定含有兩個先後發生在過去的事件，離現在較近的用過去式， 較遠的用過去完成式。由於有時態可供判別，所以先提到哪一個都沒有關係。在以下的例子當中，Event A是較早發生的事件，Event B則較晚發生。

Event A: Tina had gone out
Event B: when I entered the classroom.

Event A: I had saved my document
Event B: before the computer crashed.

Event B: When they arrived,
Event A: we had already started reading.

Event B: She was very tired
Event A: because she hadn't slept well last night.

有關過去一前一後兩事件的時態表述，有3個要點需要提出：

1. 必須確實為兩事件。我有一位大一作文課學生曾寫下這樣一個句子：

•I had not had my own computer until I went to college.

儘管句子不對，但我們還是得對我這位學生拍拍手，因為她對過去完成式很有概念，知道如果句子中出現兩個發生在過去的事件，離現在較近的要用過去式，較遠者得用過去完成式。可惜的是，這裡「只有一件事情」，不是兩件－她什麼時候開始擁有自己的電腦。雖然until I went to college中的went to college看起來好像是一件事情。其實不是，它是一個終結點，旨在說明我學生沒有自己電腦的時間持續到什麼時候。從功能上說，這個由until所引導的副詞子句就很像下例中的last Monday：

•Steve did not come until last Monday.

所以，她的句子應改為: 

•I did not have a computer until I went to college.

同時，「有」之前當然就是「沒有」，吃飯之前就是還沒吃，不能叫做兩件事。這不像寫功課和遊戲，就真的是不一樣的事情。所謂「有生於無」，不是嗎？哈哈！所以在理解過去完成式時，不能把until和before、after或甚至because同等看待，它不具有時間先後的暗示。

2. 在同一個句子當中，由and連接的過去事件應被看成同一系列，加上這樣的系列動作通常時間差都很小，所以得用過去式，不用過去完成式。

•He heard the news, went to the telephone, and called a friend.

•Martha turned off the light and went to bed.

3. 如果兩過去事件呈現因果關係，後果都已經是過去，比後果更早的前因一般而言自然是過去完成式。例如：

•We went to London because our friends had invited us.

去倫敦是過去，邀請的事實必然更早發生，所以是過去完成。而且，理論上邀請和成行之間會有相當的時間差。可是，如果我們以「有因必有果」為焦點，不太在意時間次序，那麼只要事件的因果都已經成為過去，都用過去式也不是不可以。例如：

•I did well on my exam because I studied hard.

說話者這麼敘述，是要強調他成績好絕非偶然或僥倖，而是努力用功的結果，得之無愧。值得注意的是，縱然因果句可以都用過去式，但除了七、八年級的國中生之外，各種考試的出題者都會設定我們已經學過所有動詞時態。因此，碰到類似上句那樣的題目時，由because所引導的原因句最好還是選擇過去完成式。否則，我們十之八九會被打錯，被認定為對恐怕是要靠運氣。

動詞時態的一致與呼應

一個句子如果出現兩個以上的動詞，它們的時態需要兼顧語意和語法。這個動詞時態的一致問題是華人英文寫作的主要困擾之一。但這個困擾是可以不必存在的。首先，英文的簡單句幾乎沒有這方面的問題。就複雜句而言，也只有含有名詞子句的句子需要注意，帶有形容詞子句或副詞子句的句子是有一定語意邏輯可尋的，而這個邏輯其實跟中文的差異很小，大家可以不用擔心。所以，以下我們僅就含有名詞子句的時態一致問題做討論。

1. 主句的動詞say, think, believe等如果是現在式（簡單、進行、完成），that- 子句可依實際情況選用現在、過去或未來式。因為此時說話者是處在當下評論事情，自然可以縱橫古今，無所不談。

•We think (that) Lisa is a good student.

•They believe (that) he is telling a lie.

•We suppose (that) he has just left.

•People guess (that) he was dead.

•We think (that) he was traveling that day.

•They believe (that) John had returned before midnight.

•We believe (that) our father will recover soon.

•We suppose (that) Tom will be studying tomorrow morning.

•We think (that) Helen will have reached home by tomorrow morning.

•Steve has told me (that) it is going to rain/ you lost your money/ the prices will go up.

2. 主句的動詞say, think, believe等如果是過去式（簡單、進行、完成），that- 子句中的動詞用過去式。

•He said (that) he trusted you/ he was waiting for the bus/ he had learned English many years/ he would go to the United States next summer.

想必有人會覺得"He said he would go to the United States next summer" 怪怪的。next summer還沒到，不是應該用will，為什麼用would呢？關鍵在he said。曾經說過的話後來改變不是什麼新鮮事。類似以下的經驗相信我們都有過：半年前A跟B 說他明年9月要去日本工作。相隔3個月後兩人又碰面了，B提起這件事，A反而很詫異地說：「喔！我沒跟你說嗎? 已經不去了。」用would的理由就在這裡。儘管next summer還沒到，但說話者也許早已改變心意了。我們得一直記住，過去式所描述的事實不是已經不存在，就是可能改變或早就改變了。

3. 主句的動詞say等雖為過去式，但that-子句所敘述的假如是公認的真理或事實，子句的動詞則要用現在簡單式。

•The teacher said (that) light travels faster than sound.

•Joe said that the class begins at 10:30.

許多老師經常這樣告訴學生，只要位於句子前半段的動詞用什麼時態，後半段的動詞就得用那種時態。經由前面的討論，我們知道除了規則2所說的情形之外，即使是名詞子句的結構，時態的使用是很有彈性的。假如連含有名詞子句的文句都是這樣，具有形容詞和副詞子句的句構就更是如此。這個說法，可由以下的例子得到更進一步的呼應。

•The man who is sitting there came to town last night.

•The man who was sitting there a moment ago wants to talk with you.

•The man who will teach you English next month had left the room before you came in.

•Because he did not submit the assignment on time, he will be punished by the teacher later.

主動的結構；被動的意涵

有些句子感覺起來有被動的意味，卻用主動表達。那是因為，這種句子所要傳達的不是某動作在某特定時間被執行，而是某人、事、物本身所具有的某項特質。因為是本身具有，所以用主動。例如：

•Jane is hard to please.（Jane很不容易取悅）

•The cloth washes well. （這塊布很耐洗）

•The poem does not translate well. （這首詩不好翻）

•The question is easy to answer. （這個問題容易回答）

以上4個句子雖然都有著「被取悅」、「被洗」、「被翻譯」、「被回答」的意思，但不容易被取悅是Jane的性格，不容易被洗壞是布的品質，難翻譯是詩的特性，容易回答是問題的特點，這些都是各自擁有的一般情況，不是誰在哪個時間想去討好Jane、洗布料、翻譯詩或回答問題，並未發生「被…」的情形，所以不用被動而用主動。

比較：

•Jane is pleased that I decide to go to her birthday party. （因為我決定參加Jane的生日宴會，所以她「被」取悅了）

•The cloth was well washed. （這塊布「被」洗得很乾淨）

•The poem was not well translated. （這首詩「被」翻得不好）

•The question was easily answered by the girl. （這問題很輕易就被女孩答對了）

此外，注意以下兩個用法：

blame是「責備」的意思，但be to blame for的意思是「應負責」（be responsible for）或「有罪過」（be guilty of），所以用主動：

•Either you or he is to blame for the failure. （這次失敗，該負責的不是你就是他。不可用to be blamed）

•The children were not to blame for the matter. They were in no way to blame.（孩子們不需要為這件事負責。他們一點也不需要負責。同樣不可以用to be blamed）

比較：

•Don't blame the children for the matter.

等於

•Don't blame the matter on the children. （別把這件事情怪罪到小孩頭上）

2. 動詞lie可以解釋為「平放於…表面」，這種狀態是很多東西的常態，也應該用主動：

•The book lies on the table.

書不放在桌上就得放在其它某個地方，總不能飄在半空中，除非我們施用魔法。既是常態，自然得用主動表達。杯子被打破、小孩被打、東西被偷等非常態才用被動。同時，如果真要描述書本被放在桌上就不是用lie，應該用和它很類似的lay：

•He laid the book on the table and went out.

•A book is laid on the dining table; put it back to the shelf.

關係子句其實可以更有善

關係子句牽涉甚廣，文法書也都有清楚詳盡的解說，這裡主要想討論的是關係子句的分類問題。關於關係子句的分類，文法書大多把它分為「限定用法」和「非限定用法」兩類，殊不知這種過於專業的用語可能也是某些學習者對關係子句感到困擾的部份原因。

另一方面，關係子句的分類卻很重要，因為它會影響到是否該使用逗點，該使用哪個關係詞和關係詞能否省略。因此，我想出了一種分類方法，其成效也從103到106學年度我在慈濟大學英美語文學系的大一寫作課中得到印證。我的方式很平易近人，就是把關係子句分為確定修飾對象的（限定用法）和補充說明修飾對象的（非限定用法）兩種。

1. 確定修飾對象的關係子句：這是指關係子句所修飾的名詞（先行詞）原本相當不清楚，經由子句的進一步描述才變得明確。例如：

•Children who hate ice cream are uncommon.

如果把關係子句who hate ice cream去掉，句子就是：Children are uncommon。這個句子仍是對的，我們也都看得懂，但它的語意就變得很模糊。儘管我們不會認為那是在說所有的小孩都uncommon，但究竟uncommon的是哪些小孩呢？從這個未確定修飾對象的句子我們實在看不出來，於是這個關係子句就很關鍵，因為就是它讓我們知道不多見的是那些討厭冰淇淋的小孩。

其它例子：

•The woman who visited me in the hospital was very kind.

•Dogs that like cats are very unusual.

•The doctor whom I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.

•The girl whom we met at the party is a singer.

•Cindy is a girl whose judgment I trust.

•This is the girl whose mother is from Canada.

•The flowers that grow in the garden are beautiful.

•An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.

•The umbrella that I bought last week is already broken.

•The weather that we had this winter was cold.

從上述這些例子可以讓我們進一步了解，在先行詞對象不明確的句子中，關係子句的角色至關重要，因此自然不能用逗點把它和主句區隔開來。我們知道，當用逗點把一串文字前後夾住時，這種逗點的作用就幾乎等於括弧，把可有可無的東西括在裡邊。至關重要的內容如何又變得可有可無，這無疑是不能成例的。

附帶一提：在傳統英文中，一般用關係代名詞who（主詞）和whom（受詞）指人，用which指物（較不正式的英文中who可代替whom做受詞用）。不過，現在（尤其是美式英文）則習慣把which留給對象明確的敘述，至於對象不明確的情況則通常用that 指人以外的東西。同時，that也可以取代who和whom。此外，做受詞用的關係詞也可以省略：

•The doctor I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.

•The girl we met at the party is a singer.

•The umbrella I bought last week is already broken.

•The weather we had this winter was cold.

•Is that the man she arrived with?

•It is a club many important people belong to.

注意：當句子的介系詞不是在子句句尾（arrived with、belong to），而是在關係詞之前，那麼關係詞不只不能省略，也不能改用that，也就是得用whom指人、 用which指物：

•Is that the man with whom she arrived?

•It is a club to which many important people belong.

2. 補充說明修飾對象的關係子句：這是指關係子句所修飾的名詞（先行詞）夠清楚，因此關係子句所提供的資訊是額外的、可有可無的。例如：

•My dad, who is 54, works for Apple.

這個句子很清楚地表示要說的是老爸，不是別人。有了關係子句who is 54提供的資訊當然更好，但缺了也不要緊，讓人家知道老爸在蘋果工作才是重點。既然是可有可無的補充說明，當然得用類似括弧的逗點把它括起來，不然事情就大條啦！因為沒有了逗點的整句話等於表示，說話者有好幾個爸爸，所以必須向人家強調他究竟在說哪一個。這下子英文文法錯誤是小，讓人家笑掉大牙或甚至氣死老爸才真是要命呢！

再者，既然先行詞所指的對象已經明確，這時候該用什麼關係代名詞就得用－ 用who指人（較正式的受詞用法是whom）、用which指物，自然就不能再用that，也不能夠省略。

其它例子：

•My mother, who is 60, lives in London.

•My friend May, who went to the same school as I, has just written a best-selling novel.

•Many Halloween customs started with the Celts, who lived in Ireland and England hundreds of years ago.

•According to legend, Valentine's Day was named for St. Valentine, who was a Roman priest.

•James Stevenson, whom I met in England last year, told me about Boxing Day.

•Helen, whom Tom loves madly, is really beautiful.

•Yesterday I met a woman named Susan, whose husband works in London.

•Elephants, which are the largest land mammals, live in herds of 10 or more adults.

•Gorillas, which are large and originate in Africa, can sometimes be found in zoos.

•Roses, which are usually very expensive, are a typical gift for Valentine's Day.

•Paris, which has a long history, is a romantic city.

•I like The Da Vinci Code, which many people like, too.

•Boxing Day, which people celebrate in Canada, Great Britain, and other English-speaking countries, is almost unknown in the United States.

•Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written, is Shakespeare's birthplace.

•Stratford-on-Avon, which many people have written about, is Shakespeare's birthplace.

經由以上舉例我們不難了解：關係子句中的明確對象幾乎都具有「唯一」的特性。非得如此嗎？通常是的，但也非必然。

比較：

•The watch that my girlfriend had sent me was stolen.

•The watch, which my girlfriend had sent me, was stolen.

一般會採用第一種表達方式。因為我可能有好幾個手錶，所以對象不明確，得強調是女朋友送的那個被偷。不過，儘管我可能有10個以上的手錶，但在我心目中就是女朋友送的那個最重要。每回想到手錶，想到的就是那個—想到一份愛的信物；想到一顆浪漫的種子。這不只我知道，熟悉我的朋友同樣知道。不用多說，無須強調，強調了反成多餘。因此，我選擇了反應內心的、加上逗點的表達。

假設語氣

• 一個基本觀念

四十年前我讀國、高中時，也許假設語氣真的可怕。那時候的假設語氣除了用if 和wish之外，還有很多枝節和變化，的確頗為繁複，但現在那些幾乎都已經不用。此外，以前的「與現在事實相反」假設如果if子句碰到be動詞都得用were， 這方面現在也較有彈性。既然與現在事實相反的假設是以過去式呈現，現在的用法是可以完全比照過去式的規則。也就是說，當if子句的主詞是第三人稱單數或I時可以用was，不一定要用were。這樣的改變，相信讓假設語氣顯得友善不少。也因為這樣，時下的文法書有關假設語氣的篇幅也比以前少了許多。

假如假設語氣還有什麼麻煩事，那就是為什麼明明是與「現在事實」相反，if子句卻要用過去式？既然是與「過去事實」相反又得用過去完成式？

要消除這個疑問，我們首先應該說說假設語氣究竟想要傳達什麼？這種用法的if子句（或動詞wish後面的名詞子句）所表達的，是一件根本不曾發生的事情。現在沒有發生那件事叫做與現在事實相反，過去未曾發生就叫做與過去事實相反。這個部份，下個單元我們會有更深入和詳細的說明。

了解假設語氣的精神之後，我們再來說說過去式。無疑的，過去式說的是在過去曾經發生過的事情。所以，當我們問Jack認不認識John時，如果Jack回答：Yes, he was my friend。這表示至少就Jack這方面看來，他和John的友誼現在已經「不存在」。過去式所描寫的事情現在已經不存在，這和與現在事實相反的if子句中所假設的事情現在沒有發生是不是有很大的雷同呢？

或許有人要問，與現在事實相反既然牽涉到現在，難道不能用現在式嗎？我們都知道，動詞時態中的現在簡單式表不變的真理或經常性的事實。用這樣的時態表示一件根本沒有發生的事情自然是矛盾的。同樣的，現在進行式表持續，現在完成式表到現在已經完成或已持續的時間，用他們表示與現在事實相反的假設語氣依然很怪。所以，英文的動詞時態中，只有暗示現在不存在的過去式才最符合這種假設語氣。

了解這層道理，就不難了解為什麼與過去事實相反的假設語氣要用過去完成式。最簡單的原因是，既然過去式讓給了與現在事實相反的假設，與過去事實相反的假設自然不能再用。另外，我們也可以再舉一個例子進一步說明。很多人知道我今年八月從慈濟退休。所以，如果我說「假如我去年就退休」就是一個和過去（去年）相反的假設。要假設現在不存在的事實要退到過去，要呈現這個「退休」純粹是一個和去年的實際情形不符的假設，在去年並不存在，就得退回到更早的過去，使用過去完成式。

現在的假設語氣已經比以前友善多了。如果能再克服這個時態使用的障礙，使用起來一定更加得心應手。下回我們將正式介紹與現在事實和過去事實相反的假設語氣。

• 與現在事實相反 vs. 與過去事實相反

在前一單元中，我們已經解釋過為什麼與現在事實相反的if子句動詞要用過去式， 與過去事實相反要用過去完成式。在討論這兩種假設語氣之前，我們還要再提醒兩點：

第一，到現在為止，我們並未說明為什麼與現在事實相反的主要子句要用語氣助動詞（較常用would）+ 原形動詞，與過去事實相反的假設語氣要用語氣助動詞（同樣較常用would）+ have + 過去分詞。那是因為，即使不用於假設語氣中，would、could和might等語氣助動詞+原形動詞也可以表示現在不可能發生的事情。這些助動詞如果加上現在完成式，也可以表示過去不可能發生的事。例如：

•I'm so hungry that I would/ could/ might eat a whole pig.（現在我餓到可以吃下一整隻豬）

•I was so hungry that I would/ could/ might have eaten a whole pig.（當時我餓到可以吃下一整隻豬）

因此，與現在事實相反和與過去事實相反的假設語氣說的既然都是不曾發生的事， 自然順理成章地延用這些語氣助動詞的原本用法了。

第二，由於if所引導的是從屬子句，所以它們也和一般的從屬子句一樣，可以放在整個句子的前段或後段。放在前段時後面要有逗點，放在後段（也就是主要子句的後面）時則不需要。這是副詞子句的使用通則，不限於假設語氣。之後的例句，我們會彈性使用這兩種寫法。也就是有時把if子句放在前面，有時放在後面。

A. 與現在事實相反的假設語氣

附屬子句：if + 主詞 + 過去式動詞

主要子句：主詞 + 語氣助動詞 + 原形動詞

也許我們可以說，假設語氣就類似中文「假如…，那麼…」的結構。如果大前提「假如…」已經不是事實，可能的結果「那麼…」自然也無法成例。但同時，也正因為大前提是空的，他可能導致的結果就可以無限想像。例如：對我來說，眼睛看不見才是現在真正的事實。所以，如果我說「假如我眼睛看得見」就是跟我是盲人這個現在事實相反。但另一方面，我又可以在這個空白的假設中自由想像。例如我可以說，如果眼睛看見了，我一定要「看盡天下美女」。

一些與現在事實相反的實例：

•If I was/ were the President, I would add ten national holidays.

•I could help a friend to buy a new car if I had one million dollars.

•If I spoke German, I would be working in Germany.

•I might fly to the United States if I was/ were a bird.

•If I were you, I wouldn't do it.

•They would go out if it didn't rain. （現在正下著雨）

•If there was/ were an earthquake, I would be frightened to death. （現在沒有地震）

B. 與過去事實相反的假設語氣。

附屬子句：if + 主詞 + had + 過去分詞

主要子句：主詞 + 語氣助動詞 + have + 過去分詞

一旦了解與事實相反的假設語氣精神，與過去事實相反的假設語氣就不需要多做討論。唯一要說的是，這種假設語氣是對過去的反省與檢討，經常意味著一種為時已晚的感嘆。例如「假如當初我有一百萬，就會去美國念書」這個句子就是與過去事實相反的假設語氣，表示說話的人當初沒有一百萬，所以也不曾去美國念書。以下是其他例子：

•If I had worked harder, I would have passed the exam.

•You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.

•If I had known they were coming, I might have cooked a big meal.

•I would have been happier if you had come to my birthday party.

以上就是與現在事實和與過去事實相反的假設語氣。這兩種假設語氣還可以同時出現在同樣一個句子中。在什麼情況下可以這樣？要怎麼做呢？下個單元分曉。

• 混合型的假設語氣

混合型的假設語氣又可以分為以下兩種：

A. 敘述由於過去未種下A因，因而現在沒有產生B果。例如「假如過去我嫁給他，現在一定不快樂。」真正的事實是，因為我沒嫁給他，所以我現在是快樂的。這種用法的if子句要用過去完成式，主要子句用語氣助動詞（較常用would） + 原形動詞。

EXAMPLES:

•I wouldn't be happy now if I had married him.

•If I had studied harder at school, I could have a better job now.

•You might be dead now if you had caught that train.

•If I had taken that job, I would be the president of a large enterprise.

B. 敘述要不是因為A特質的關係（這種特質到現在為止依然存在，也可能永遠存在），過去就能產生B情況。例如「他要不是太膽小，那漂亮女生就會是他老婆了。」因為人格特質不容易改變，所以那個過去因膽小而不能贏得美人心的人現在很可能膽小如故，膽大於是成了與現在相反的事實，if子句也因此要用過去簡單式動詞。又因為「娶到漂亮老婆」在過去未曾發生，所以主要子句要用語氣助動詞（較常用would） + have + 過去分詞，表示和過去事實相反。

EXAMPLES:

•If he was bold, he would have married a beautiful girl.

•I could have crushed it if I wasn't afraid of cockroaches.

•If my English was good enough, I would have translated that poem for her.

•I would have been able to buy that wonderful villa if I was rich.

以上就是與現在事實和過去事實相反的假設語氣要點。看到這裡，不知道有沒有人會問：假設語氣只牽涉到現在和過去嗎？他能用來敘述和未來有關的事情嗎？可以的。那就是我們下個單元的內容。

• 和未來相關的假設語氣

由於未來的事情還沒有發生，所以就不存在所謂的事實，也自然就沒有和事實相反與否的問題。因此，這種假設語氣所要描述的是未來完全不可能發生或有些微可能發生（萬一）的事情。但嚴格和客觀地說，我們很難說天底下哪些事情真的完全不可能發生。所以，這種假設語氣實際上是建立在人類的生活經驗和主觀判斷之上的。

A. 未來完全不可能發生的假設語氣。

if子句用were + 不定詞，主要子句用語氣助動詞（較常用would） + 原形動詞。

EXAMPLES:

•If my cat were to have human speech, I would take it to travel the world.

•I might try to hide in a thick forest if the third world war were to break out tomorrow.

B. 未來有些微可能的假設語氣。

if子句用should + 原形動詞。主要子句若用現在時態語氣助動詞（例如can） + 原形動詞，表示真的有些可能會發生某事；若用過去時態語氣助動詞（例如could） + 原形動詞，表示那件事情幾乎不可能發生。

EXAMPLES:

•I can set up three companies if I should get a prize of two billion dollars in a lottery.

•If a magnitude 20 earthquake should hit any city, it could be destroyed completely.

到目前為止，我們對於假設語氣的討論總是if來if去的。事實上，我們也可以把if藏起來喔！你想不想玩一下假設語氣的躲貓貓，然後對你的好朋友考試，問他們為什麼這也叫做假設語氣？但千萬千萬只能考你最好最好的朋友，否則人家說你刁難他們，我可管不了喔！

• if的省略

假如if子句含有be動詞或助動詞，那麼為了讓句子更簡潔，有時我們可以省略if，然後把be動詞或助動詞移到句首，也就是倒裝。不過，如果if子句中沒有be動詞或助動詞，而是一般動詞（如以下之最後例子）則不能倒裝。

EXAMPLES:

•If I had been there, I could have done something to help.

•Had I been there, I could have done something to help.

•If I were a plant, I would love rain.

•Were I a plant, I would love rain.

•If I spoke German, I would be working in Germany. （不能倒裝）

除了用if之外，假設語氣還有其他的呈現方式。詳見下個單元。

其他的假設語氣呈現方式

我們先前說過，假設語氣的樣態已經比幾十年前減少很多。以下是3種目前還延用的。

A. it's time...

是該做某事卻還沒做的提醒，也就是該是…的時候了。他可以接不定詞。接子句時通常用與現在事實相反的假設語氣，也就是用過去式be動詞或一般動詞。也可以用it's about time來加強語氣，表示早就該…了。

EXAMPLES:

•It's time for you kids to go home.

•It's time you kids went home.

•It's about time you kids went home. Don't you know what time it is?

B. if only...

表示「真希望…」，經常用於與現在事實相反的情境中。if和only可以拆開，把only置於助動詞後面。

EXAMPLES:

•If only I had more time!

•If only she would come!

•If she would only come!

C. wish

意思類似if only，主要也是表示與現在事實相反的情況。

EXAMPLES:

•There are too many things to do. I wish I had more time!

•I wish I remembered more English idioms.

•Do you ever wish you could fly?

這裡應該提醒大家：不是所有的if都是假設語氣。這就是這個系列最後一單元所要討論的重點。

if的非假設語氣用法

學習者不要一見到if，就認為假設語氣又來了。英文中至少有以下3種用法的if是和假設語氣無關的。同時，這類非假設句的主要子句除了陳述未來必然發生的事得用will之外，其餘很多情況都能使用其它像may、should等語氣助動詞以區分確定性或讚許的程度。接著，我們就來討論這3種非假設句：

A. 用在有關科學或邏輯事實的因果推演，也就是一旦有了A因，就必然有B果。因為所陳述的是普遍真理，所以主要子句和從屬子句的動詞都要用現在簡單式。又因為所陳述的是一般的事實和現象，所以通常也可以用when代替if。

EXAMPLES:

•If you heat ice, it melts.

•When you heat ice, it melts.

•The grass gets wet if it rains.

•If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.

•Plants die if they don't get enough water.

•If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.

•If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.

•If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

B. 用來發號指示。這時主要子句要使用祈使句。

EXAMPLES:

•If Helen calls, tell her to meet me at the supermarket.

•Ask John if you're not sure what to do.

•If you want to come, let me know before 6:00.

•Meet me here if we get separated.

C. 敘述一旦有了A條件，那麼就有很大機率產生B結果，常用以提醒或警告。句型是主要子句用現在簡單式，從屬子句用未來式。

EXAMPLES:

•You will get wet if it rains this afternoon.

•If Sally is late again, the boss will be mad.

•If you don't hurry, you won't catch the train.

•I'll call the police if you don't leave.

•I may finish that letter if I have time.

•If he invites you, you should go.

現在，我們已經把假設語氣討論完畢，大家對他有比較不怕了嗎？

修飾語和主詞的關係探討

關於修飾語，也許不少人只想到由現在分詞和過去分詞所形成的分詞構句。事實上，修飾語的問題沒有那麼單純，以下將逐一探討。（在這裡，將用*和x分別表示正確和錯誤的句子。）

A. 修飾語沒有主詞可以修飾。

1. 分詞構句：這是最常見的情況，這種修飾語叫做dangling modifier。寫作時，當我們用現在分詞或過去分詞開始一個句子時要特別小心，因為在這種情況下很容易出現dangling modifier。要避免這種錯誤，寫完整個句子之後應該暫時忽略分詞片語，先看看逗點之後那個完整句子的主詞是什麼。接著再回頭檢視片語，確認片語中被省略的主詞和完整句的主詞是否一致。如果不一樣，這個片語就成了dangling modifier。解決方式有兩種：(1) 把分詞片語還原成句子，賦予它真正的主詞。(2) 修改完整句的主詞，讓它和分詞片語中被省略的主詞一致。簡單說，「主詞相同」是分詞構句的先決條件和必要條件。

x: Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

分詞構句（寫成完整句時是副詞子句）中有個人因為不知道某人的名字 所以無法介紹他，但主要子句的主詞卻是虛主詞it，分詞片語於是成了 dangling modifier。如果採用第一種方式解決，句子會變成：

*: Because I did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

第二種方式的改法是：

*: Without knowing his name, I found it difficult to introduce him.

*: Without knowing his name, I had difficulty introducing him.

就簡化結構的觀點說，我們應當盡可能採用第二種方式，維持分詞構句。

另外，在完整句的主詞和分詞片語中被省略的主詞一致後，也可以把分詞片語放在主詞之後、動詞之前，前後用逗點夾住片語，其它型態的修飾語（例如不定詞片語）同樣可以這麼做。因此，上例可以寫成：

*: I, without knowing his name, found it difficult to introduce him.

*: I, without knowing his name, had difficulty introducing him.

其它例子：

x: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing. （前面是人，後面是article，前後主詞不一致）

*: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.

*: I, after reading the original study, find the article unconvincing.

x: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax. （you和home主詞不同）

*: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.

*: You, relieved of your responsibilities at your job, should be able to relax at home.

x: Walking down the street, the trees were beautiful.

*: Walking down the street, the man saw the beautiful trees.

x: Looking through the telescope, the moon seemed enormous.

*: As I looked at the moon through the telescope, it seemed enormous.

*: Looking through the telescope, I felt that the moon seemed enormous.

*: Looked through the telescope, the moon seemed enormous. （前後都用moon當主詞）

x: Having been thrown in the air, the dog caught the stick.

*: When the stick was thrown in the air, the dog caught it.

因為這個句子中的stick出現兩次，所以我們也可以用關係子句引導第二次出現的stick，然後進一步省掉不重要的關係代名詞that/ which和be動詞was：

*: The dog caught the stick (that/ which was) thrown in the air.

值得一提的是，既然分詞構句是副詞子句的省略，那麼它的位置也和一般的副詞子句一樣，不只可以放在句子前段，也可以放在後段。例如：

x: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

*: The experiment failed, for they had not studied the lab manual carefully.

*: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

*: Not having studied the lab manual carefully, they failed the experiment.

x: When working with power tools, eyes should be protected.

*: When working with power tools, protect your eyes.

*: Protect your eyes when you use power tools.

*: When working with power tools, we should protect our eyes.

2. 以不定詞片語或As（身為…；做為…）開始句子的情形：

x: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.

*: To improve his results, the student did the experiment again.

*: The student, to improve his results, did the experiment again.

*: The student improved his results by doing the experiment again.

x: As a disabled woman, her achievement was great.

*: As a disabled woman, she achieved greatly.

*: She, as a disabled woman, achieved greatly.

B. 修飾語修飾的對象不夠明確。

1. 即使分詞構句沒有前後主詞不一致的問題也不能大意。例如當句子是主詞+動詞+受詞時，我們得確實弄清楚分詞片語究竟要修飾誰。修飾主詞就放在句首，後面加逗點，修飾受詞就直接放在受詞後面。

例1. x: The man killed a good friend, awfully enraged.

在修飾語的各種問題當中，這是最容易解決的。某人被惹毛了，所以把好友給殺了。毫無疑問地，修飾語awfully enraged應該修飾的是主詞The man而不是受詞a good friend。因此，只要把awfully enraged移到句首，後加逗點，修改就告完成：

*: Awfully enraged, the man killed a good friend.

例2. x: She left the room fuming.

fuming可以形容人「憤怒」，也可以指東西或建築物「冒煙」，但前一個意思用得較多。這裡把fuming放在room後面會讓句意顯得模稜兩可。就位置說，fuming在room後面，應該是「這女孩離開冒煙的房間」。但就fume的使用頻率和哪種情況較為可能這兩方面說，則應該是「她離開房間時氣呼呼的」。況且，如果是冒煙的房間，恐怕就不會氣定神閒地「離開」，大概得要用衝的吧！因此，為了避免含混不清，如果是女生氣呼呼離開房間，應該寫成：

*: Fuming, she left the room.

如果是離開冒煙的房間就更好辦，可以寫成：

*: She left the fuming room.

例3. x: Hopping briskly through the vegetable garden, I saw a toad.

hop是指小動物的跳躍，所以把hopping放在主詞I前面，就會變成這個人輕快活潑地跳著跳著，跳過菜園。期間，他看到一隻癩蛤蟆。嚴格說來這也不是完全不可能，但恐怕有些奇怪。所以，比較合理的情況是某人看到一隻癩蛤蟆，這隻癩蛤蟆正輕快活潑地跳著跳著，跳過菜園。癩蛤蟆出現兩次，所以是關係子句的結構：

*: I saw a toad (that/ which was) hopping briskly through the vegetable garden.

2. 主詞+動詞+受詞的句子中如果有介系詞片語，它的位置也不能隨便。假如修飾主詞就得置於句首，後面通常會加逗點，如果修飾受詞則放在受詞後面（通常是句末）。

x: At the back of the refrigerator, I noticed a yellow apple.

就句構而論，這個句子的意思應當是有人跑到冰箱後面，然後注意到－看到－一顆黃蘋果。這當然也不是不可能，但它更合理的解釋是有人注意到冰箱後面有一顆黃蘋果。因此介系詞片語必須放到apple後面，成為：

*: I noticed a yellow apple at the back of the refrigerator.

或許有人會覺得這樣太吹毛求疵，誰都能夠用常識解釋上面的句子，為什麼介系詞片語非放到apple後面不可呢？然而，殊不知「常識」正是問題的所在。我們應該感謝由於與常識不合，所以才不至於讓我們誤解上句。但是，假如面對一個句構有類似錯誤的情形，而且常識又派不上用場，那該怎麼辦？所以，正確文法結構的掌握與應用才是閱讀和書寫的不二法門。

另一方面，介系詞片語的功能類似副詞，在句中的位置較有彈性。因此，有時縱使不是修飾主詞，但為了讓語意更加清晰，也會將其置於句首，尤其是當句子裡包含關係子句時。例如「你可以在袋子裡找到一些我買的柳丁」如果寫成下列兩種形式之一固然文法不能算錯，但結構顯然不好：

x: You can find some oranges in the bag that I bought.

我們知道關係子句得盡可能放在所修飾之名詞（先行詞）後面。所以，這裡的關係子句that I bought應該放在oranges後面，放在bag後面明顯不好。

x: You can find some oranges that I bought in the bag.

這樣寫好一些，至少關係子句的位置對了。但新的問題來了。柳丁和所放的地方被分開了，何況這個可以算是地方副詞的介系詞片語in the bag跟動詞find（在哪裡找到）的關係也比跟另一個動詞bought密切。假如英文中找不到面面俱到的解決方法，上面的句子就可以成例。不過，有的。只要把介系詞片語放到句子最前面，問題就解決：

*: In the bag, you can find some oranges that I bought.

3. 以As'''為句首的介系詞片語只能修飾主詞：

x: As strategies to address domestic violence, the government did not emphasize them sufficiently.

*: As strategies to address domestic violence, they were not sufficiently emphasized by the government.

C. 形容詞（不能是副詞）也可以放在句首，後加逗點，形成主詞補語，修飾主詞（不能修飾受詞）。例如：

*: Proud, calm, and fearless, he took his final destiny--death.

這個句子想傳達的是某一個人（可能是一位英雄）在面對死亡時的態度－滿身傲骨；沈著冷靜；無所畏懼：

*: He was proud, calm, and fearless when he took his final destiny--death.

很明顯地，這一連串三個形容詞是要集中火力烘托英雄面臨死亡時的身心狀態，如果全都改為副詞，那就變成只有修飾動詞took，味道和意境顯然差很多。

類似例子：

*: Surprised but joyful, Jane accepted Bingley's proposal. (= Jane felt surprised but joyful when she accepted Bingley's proposal.)

x: Unable to pass the exam, John's father scolded him.

*: Unable to pass the exam, John was scolded by his father. (= Because he was unable to pass the exam, John was scolded by his father.)

你對英文結構知多少？

談起什麼是增進英文閱讀效率的關鍵－也就是既要讀得快、也要讀得準，也許很多人會說是多背單字和加強文法。不過，事實恐怕不是、或者不只這樣。相較之下，很快找出文章中哪裡出現省略、省略的又是什麼可能更為重要。試看下面這個句子，他幾乎沒有單字，文法也不特殊，但結構的學問可不小，學問之所在就是省略：

Any method is right, every method is right, that expresses what we wish to express, if we are writers; that brings us closer to the novelist's intention if we are readers.

這個句子出自赫赫有名的才女作家Virginia Woolf。在可謂是意識流小說宣言的"Modern Fiction"中Woolf寫了這句話。我曾請幾個人試著理出他的結構，個個都 卡住了。剛讀到他，我自己也傻眼了一下下。在與人討論這個句子的過程中，我發現幾個一般人閱讀英文的迷思：

1. 過度強調單字在解意中的角色。有許多人在作題目時，哪怕一個句子只有出現一個生字都會感到害怕。事實上，就算是各種英文證照的考試，除了真正是字彙的大題之外，很多時候生字完全不妨礙解題。不要說是單字，有時連不懂題意都不影響作答。有一次我讀到一個描述三稜鏡功能的托福考題，這是個百分之百視覺的經驗，但完全不妨礙我對那個題目的回應。所以，想要自在閱讀英文，去除單字的心理障礙是極其要緊的。對那些懶於背單字的人來說，這種障礙更毫無存在的道理。

2. 本末倒置的思維。有人說，因為他不懂Woolf的意思，所以無法理出上句的結構。然而，不正是因為「不懂」，才更有必要找出上句中究竟省略了什麼嗎？何況，什麼叫做「懂」？我了解這個句子的結構，我就真的完全了解Woolf所要表達的意思嗎？所以，不要讓所謂的「不懂」成為我們理解英文的障礙，甚至是藉口。

3. 程序的迷思。和我討論的人當中，有人一開始就努力探究that expresses...和that brings us...當中的that代表什麼。不過，如果只是要弄清楚句子的結構，這種探索是不需要的。再說，當我們把被省略的內容還原之後也將更容易知道that意何所指。只要依循以下幾個原則，並不難找到文中被省略的部份：

1. 被省略的內容一定是一個平行或對仗結構的後半段，也就是對等連接詞and、or、nor等的後面，連接詞之前往往會有逗點。又因為從功能上說分號等於對等連接詞加上逗點，所以自然有可能在分號後面進行省略。當然，到了新的句子再進行省略也有可能，但不常發生。
2. 既然有東西被省略，那個部份看起來一定怪怪的、好像少了什麼。例如少了主詞、動詞或甚至兩者都不見了。
3. 如果句子的分號或（逗點加上）對等連接詞後面出現怪怪的、短短的或結構不完整的內容，那就可能有省略。要知道省的是什麼一定要往回找。還沒有出現就進行省略不是不可能，但很少很少。可能省略的內容絕大部分在同一個句子，了不起是前一句，幾乎不可能跑更遠。

根據以上3個原則，我們很容易就能知道Woolf究竟把什麼東西省掉了。她的句子雖然長且有些複雜，但從文法結構說依然只是一句。句中有分號，分號之後是that加第三人稱單數動詞brings。分號前面也有個that加第三人稱單數動詞expresses，但這個that之前還有一大串東西，分號後面的that前面卻沒有，這串東西就是Woolf省掉的。所以，如果不經過省略，句子應該是：

Any method is right, every method is right, that expresses what we wish to express, if we are writers; any method is right, every method is right, that brings us closer to the novelist's intention if we are readers.

這是最簡單、最尊重原作者的還原方式。就結構而言，這是由分號前後串連的兩個complex sentences所構成的句子。兩個句子的主要子句都是any method is right, every method...開頭的句子可以看作是同位語，進一步解釋怎樣的方法才是小說的創作與閱讀應當採用的。兩個that引導的都是關係子句，修飾every method 的method。兩個if引導的附屬子句用意在闡明具有何種態度，使用何種方法才是合格的現代小說作者與讀者。因此，如果暫時不管Woolf，我們可以把她的句子略為簡化，以比較平易近人的方式改寫成：

If we are writers, any method is right that expresses what we wish to express; if we are readers, any method is right that brings us closer to the novelist's intention.

至於that引導的關係子句為什麼不直接放在其修飾的名詞method後面，那是因為這麼一來主詞method和動詞is會相隔太遠，是不好的句構。

其他例子:

1. For indifference, the powerful medicine substitutes devotion. For scorn, adoration.

這出自貼文「單字與閱讀（續）」提過的短篇故事"The Chaser"，是老人在對Alan Austen解釋他所賣春藥的神奇效果。介系詞片語（For indifference和For scorn）是兩句話都有的部份，但第一句有主詞the powerful medicine和動詞substitutes，第二句卻沒有。根據平行對仗原則，我們知道省略情形出現在第二句，少的是主詞和動詞。由於主詞還有形容詞powerful修飾、有些長，而且才剛出現過，可以用it代替：

For indifference, the powerful medicine substitutes devotion. For scorn, it (the powerful medicine) substitutes adoration. （此藥將化冷漠為深情；轉鄙夷為愛慕）

2. It is not the time to be clever or cute when you are writing a resume. Sending a photograph of yourself with your resume might get you a date, but it won't get you a job. Nor will sending your resume on bright, colorful confetti paper or setting the type in a "cutesy" font.

這是教人如何準備求職履歷的一篇文章中提到的注意事項。要還原省略或許不容易，但要偵測並不困難，只要靜下心慢慢讀通常都能找到。絕大部分帶有省略的句子都有少東西或明顯較短（如第一例）。很明顯地，這段話的第三句和第二句一樣都是動名詞Sending當主詞，第二句說附相片或許能得到男朋友或女朋友，但不一定能得到工作。第三句由Nor開頭，提醒求職者刻意把履歷弄得太花俏同樣也不能，不能什麼？當然是不能get a job：

Nor will sending your resume... get you a job.

我知道，超級無敵聰明的粉絲一定知道第二句還有個won't，為什麼還原省略之後的第三句它不見了呢？你說對了！因為Nor（也不能、也無法）的關係，用了它就能表示否定的意思。你一定要留住won't也沒問題，那就把句子改成：

Sending your resume... or setting the type in a "cutesy" font won't get you a job, either.

記住：要偵測省略就先從明顯怪怪的句子下手；要還原就往回看怪怪句的前半句或上一句的基本元素是什麼，配合多讀、多想、多練習，一定會成功的。

3. When I return, the colors won't be so brilliant, and the Jhelum's waters so clean, so ultramarine.

如果只有一句話，那麼省略幾乎都出現在（對等）連接詞後面，仔細研讀連接詞前面的文字就能順利偵測並還原省略。以這個出自已故喀什米爾詩人Agha Shahid Ali一首題為"Postcard from Kashmir"詩中文句的例子來說，連接詞and前面有the colors won't be so brilliant（主詞+否定助動詞+動詞+形容詞）的句構，但and後面卻只剩下主詞+形容詞（the Jhelum's waters so clean...）。所以，答案出來啦！won't be就是被略去的部份。我們知道現在的喀什米爾可以說是處於被瓜分狀態，分別由印度、巴基斯坦和中國控制。透過這樣的詩句，Ali所要抒發的是一種故國山河變色、人事景物皆非的無限悲涼。

4. Once there lived a village of creatures along the bottom of a great crystal river. Each creature in its own manner clung tightly to the twigs and rocks of the river bottom, for clinging was their way of life, and resisting the current what each had learned from birth.

這段話描寫的是一隻河底生物不想墨守成規，想擺脫傳統、走自己的路。它的問題也是第二句。但這個句子有一點點複雜，整句是一個由對等連接詞for（因為）連結的compound sentence，但它自己又是一個由and串接而成的複合句，省略就發生在and後面。撇開枝節，我們可以說and前面是動名詞+be動詞+補語（clinging was their way of life），但and後面be動詞不見了，只要重新加回去，還原省略就告完成：

...for clinging was their way of life, and resisting the current was what each had learned from birth.

5. In most books, the I, or first person, is omitted. We commonly do not remember that it is, after all, always the first person that is speaking. I should not talk so much about myself if there were any body else whom I knew as well.

這是美國浪漫主義大將梭羅（Henry David Thoreau）「湖濱散記」（Walden）中的話。無論是德國或美國，也不管是文學、繪畫還是音樂，幾乎所有的浪漫主義者都有一個程度不等的共同特色，那就是熱烈歌頌自我。但西方人說來也真是有趣，因為他們在突顯自我的同時，卻經常不喜歡看到別人也如法炮製。所以，這裡Thoreau要大家標準一致，既努力發聲，也讓人家談談自己。省略出現在第三句，它是與現在事實相反的假設語氣，意思是「如果其他人不要一直說自己，我也就不會這麼做。」也就是：因為大家都這樣，所以我也跟著有樣學樣。因此，改法是：

I should not talk so much about myself if there were any body else whom I knew as well did not talk so much about himself.

假如刪去不太重要的形容詞子句whom I knew as well，並稍加改寫，相信大家就能更了解Thoreau的意思了：

If other people did not talk so much about themselves, I would not do so, either.

6. One challenge facing the British proposal to force porn sites to verify the age of their consumers is figuring out how to make that work without invading adult privacy and despite the ease with which most teenagers can subvert online filters.

這個句子出自Time雜誌"Porn and the Threat to Virility"一文。作者Belinda Luscombe舉出許多實例，證明沉迷色情網站的青少年很可能引發對真正性生活無感。上句的大意是：英國原本計畫強制色情網站經營者驗證上站者年齡。但計畫能否落實，得先消除大家對妨礙成人隱私和治標不治本的質疑（小屁孩其實很容易就能「翻牆」偷窺）。偵測的關鍵還是and，figuring out…是主詞challenge的補語。figuring out之後由and引導兩個受詞，第一個受詞的結構是不定詞片語how to make that work加上介系詞片語without invading adult privacy。但and之後呢？就只剩下介系詞片語despite the ease…了。不用說，得在這個片語前面補上how to make that work：

...figuring out how to make that work without invading adult privacy and how to make that work despite the ease with which most teenagers can subvert online filters.

兩個受詞中的that指的都是that proposal。也就是儘管青少年很容易突破封鎖，但做總比不做好，唯一得注意的是不能侵犯大人們的隱私。

省略的判別對於迅速精準讀英文至關重要，如果能善加利用早先提過的3原則，配合多讀、多想、多練習，定能熟能生巧。

給寫作初學者一把鑰匙

在提出這把鑰匙之前應該說明，以下某些觀點不無見仁見智的可能，讀者需得自行斟酌衡量。另外，這裡所指的文章主要是論述性質的。假如是日記、書信、隨筆等，寫作自然比較自由和不受限制。

接著，我們就來討論哪些是寫作入門需要特別注意的要點：

A. 切忌中、英文寫作習慣的根本差異：

1. 英文需要開門見山，不宜像寫中文作文那樣拐彎抹角。

2. 尤其不要在一段的開頭或結尾引別人說的話。這是文章的重要位置，應當留給自己。

B. 最終內容比文法重要：

1. 我們文法、結構、用字再好也好不過母語人士。所以強調它們，是因為那是基本功夫，但決定文章好壞的關鍵最終是內容。

C. 確實檢查拼字：

1. 在我們念大學的年代沒有像現在WORD所提供的那種Spelling Checking，每個字都得靠自己一個一個仔細檢查。儘管如此，拼字錯誤一般都會受到老師嚴厲的指責。現在有了好的檢查機制，拼錯單字更說不過去。

2. 即使寫作方面的考試不可能讓我們檢查拼字，但平時這麼做可揪出我們可能一直拼錯卻不自知的字，對考試依舊有幫助。

D. 不要用縮寫，就是不要用：it's、I'm、don't、doesn't、haven't、I've等。

1. 所以不要用，是因為容易造成混淆。例如it's可能是it is、it was或it has； I'd可能是I would、I should、I could或I had。

2. can't也是縮寫，但不能寫成can not，應該寫成：cannot。

E. 多用單字, 少用片語，尤其不要用俗語(colloquial)和俚語(slang)。

1. 不要用像rain cats and dogs這種說法。

2. 哪些用法是俗語或俚語，好的字典都會說明。

3. 要記得，我們之所以要背片語，主要是為了reading，不是為了writing。

4. 也不要用像last but not least、to put it in a nutshell或it goes without saying這種老套。這些是考學測時用來湊字數的，但在真正的英文寫作中則不討好。

5. 簡化是寫作的核心原則。也就是說，能用片語表達的就不要用句子，能用單字的就不要用片語。

F. 不要寫太複雜的句子：

1. 無論是誰，把句子寫得越複雜就越容易出錯。

2. powerful sentence經常都是short and simple sentence。

G. 除非你確定對方知道你的意思，否則不要輕易用it、they、them、this、that、these、those等不夠清楚明確的代名詞。

1. 當然也不能矯枉過正，比如你前一句才剛提過的名詞（尤其是比較複雜的敘述），自然要用代名詞取代，否則就顯得累贅。例如以Contemporary Taiwanese Music 為題的文章，每次提到時都要這麼寫一次當然奇怪，自然得和it一類的代名詞交互使用。

H. 不要用容易讓你的讀者困惑的字：

1. 例如：「有禮貌的」就用polite， 不要用civil。

I. 不要太害怕重複(repetition)。

1. 有些重複是不可避免或甚至必要的。例如主題是「大學」，我們除了用university或college之外，還能變出什麼戲法嗎？

2. 除了不用過於害怕重複之外，更積極的作法是擴大同意字的思維。同意字絕對不是死板板地careful = cautious或decide = determine那樣一個字對應一個字。例如「年輕人」除了說成young people之外，也可以表示成：young adults、individuals in the 18-to-34 age group或18-to-34-year-olds。最後兩個說法有些累贅，但假如young people已經用過太多次，它們絕對是可以代用的。

J. 在寫論說文（尤其是有點說教的文章）時，不要用you，要改用one或we，以免你的讀者認為你在指導他或訓他而感到不舒服。

1. 假如是寫給西方人、老師或其他長輩看的文章就更要注意這點。

2. 不過，當寫類似教人「如何…」一類的文章時則要用you。從這裡，我們也能進一步了解為什麼論說文不適合輕易用you的原因，因為這麼一來可能讓讀者感覺你是在「教」他們。

3. 此外，書信、日記等也很適合用you。就像中文「我跟你說喔」那樣，讀者會覺得你把他視為好朋友，要和他分享祕密和經驗。

K. 避免用過於簡單的陳述：

1. 例1：避免用thing表示「事情」，應改用business、matter或affair。其中，affair強調比較負面或駭人的事情。

•I don't talk to my employer about private matters.

•I don't know this business.

•The whole affair was a farce/ disaster.

「事情」這個先行詞甚至可以完全被排除，由what取而代之。例如「我妹妹最愛做的事情是購物」即使說成"The activity my sister likes to do best is shopping"都不夠好，應說：

•What my sister likes to do most is shopping.

2. 例2：避免用make或let表示「使…」。

a. 如果是正面或中性的事情應用allow或enable。

•Past experiences allowed/ enabled her to get the desired job.

b. 不少負面敘述都有直接相關的動詞可以使用，例如「他的話讓我生氣」說成"His remarks made me angry"就過於簡單，應直接用表示「激怒」的動詞enrage或irritate等，也可以用被動be angered by的形式。

•His remarks irritated/ enraged/ displeased me.

•I was angered by his remarks.

3. 避免用thing、make或let等不只是因為它們過於簡單，更主要的是，這麼一來我們就會不自覺地一用再用，成為一種慣性，進而疏於在遣詞用字方面力求精進。

L. 因為東西是你寫的，基本上讀者已經認定整篇文章就是你的個人觀點。所以，就不要再用I think, In my opinion, I consider等等表示「我認為」的說法，尤其更不應該出現"In my opinion, I think..."這樣的敘述，這是徹徹底底的中式英文 －「就我的看法，我認為…」。

M. 在比較正式的文章寫作中，不要用5個英文字母連起來的maybe表示「或許」，而要改用perhaps、probably、may等等。同樣地，更不能隨便用非常不正式的網路英文（ASAP、U、supermoved）。

N. 不要用大寫的And和But開始一個新的句子。

O. 把越多的句子用逗點連結起來，就越容易發生錯誤，也更會讓看你文章的人抓狂，絕對要避免。

P. 除了以下4種詞類之外，標題每個字的第一個字母都需要大寫：

1. 介係詞

2. 冠詞

3. 不定詞

4. 連接詞

（注意：這4種詞類如果是標題的第一個字，還是得大寫。）

5. 所以，寫標題時不要以字的長短判斷應否大寫。

a. through和between很長，但它們是介係詞，所以要小寫。

b. up很短，但它是副詞，所以要大寫。

c. 如果有這麼一個作文題目，應該怎麼正確大小寫呢？

•a few ways through which one is able to climb up the mountain of success and happiness

Q. 除非是寫定義性質的段落，例如「論友誼」或「論命運」等，否則不應該花篇幅定義標題。例如寫My Family，就不應該多此一舉定義什麼叫做family。這麼做浪費篇幅是小，更大的問題是可能給人充字數和灌水的感覺，得不償失。

R. 不要用太深奧或未經查證的單字：在我那個年代，用深奧單字都未必討好。現在網路科技這麼發達，誰鍵盤敲兩下都能敲出神奇的單字，深奧單字就更不討好。

S. 結論不要硬套上一些美美的句子。如果做結論之前沒有對應的例子和細節，這些美美的句子是一點用都沒有的，甚至顯得突兀。

T. 不要動不動就用always。英文always所代表的頻率幾乎接近百分之百，所以中文才會翻譯成「總是」。很明顯地，天底下沒有那麼多的always，比較多的肯定是usually、often或frequently。

長句未必對；短句不一定錯

英文中的不完整句FRAGMENTS

一個英文句子如果缺少主詞或動詞（也不無可能兩者都缺），就叫做fragment。但既然已經不完整，或許就不應該稱為句子，該改稱字組或字串。

•Is a good idea to do volunteer works. （缺主詞）

•Students never too busy to help others. （缺動詞）

要特別注意的是，一定不能以句子長短來判定它們的完整與否。以下幾個句子都很短，卻不是fragment：

•Look!

•Stop that!

•Listen carefully!

•Birds fly.

以上各句中，1-3句是省略主詞you的命令句或祈使句，最後一句的fly可以不需要受詞（鳥能飛），所以全部沒問題，都是對的句子。不過，下面這些句子就不一樣摟！它們雖然比先前的句子明顯長很多，卻不完整，其中有的還是主、動詞都沒有呢！真的！

1. A teacher who is liked by all of her students and whose ways of teaching are recognized by all of her colleagues. (22 words)

這個字組缺的是包括動詞在內的述語部份。A teacher是主詞，其後是兩個修飾 teacher的形容詞子句。其中一個是who is liked by all of her students，另一個是whose ways of teaching are recognized by all of her colleagues。只要補足述語，句子就能完整。方法很多，只要結構正確、文意合理就行。例如：

•...may not be quite available.

•...should get a prize for such excellence.

•...can feel proud of herself.

2. Who you saw on the street yesterday is my father. (10 words)

這是和第一句相反的情況。述語有了，是句末的is my father。可是，形容詞子句 Who you saw on the street yesterday該有個修飾的對象（也就是主詞）不見了。 完整句子的方式很簡單，只要加個主詞就可以：

•The man who you saw on the street yesterday is my father.

3. Among all the poems written by the poet who has been considered to be the literary genius. (17 words)

就是前面提過主、動詞都沒有的字組。它儘管長，但其實就只是一個類似in the tree、on the desk或under the car等一類的介系詞片語。Among the poems是這個片語的核心字串，written by the poet是過去分詞片語，修飾poems。接著從who到最後這一大串又是修飾poet的形容詞子句。由此可知，假如in the tree、on the desk、under the car是沒有主詞和動詞的介系詞片語，among all the poems當然也是。完整句子的方式同樣很多：

•..., I like this one best.

•..., this one is the worst.

•..., only two or three concern love.

4. Although he was handsome, got a very good job, and had a rich, beautiful wife. (15 words)

這是我的英文寫作課中出現頻率頗高的fragment。相信多數人都知道當寫一個由 When...、Because...、If...、Although...等所引導的附屬子句時，子句之後或之前得有主要子句。如果附屬子句在前，後面需有逗點；要是主要子句在前，則需一路把句子寫完再加句點。但當我們寫了一個長長的附屬子句時，往往會不自覺地用句點結束句子。所以，上句的解決方式有：

•..., John desired more.

•..., the young man was not happy.

•..., John was quite worried about his health and thought that he might die young.

另外，有時我們的文章其實該有的都有，但就是因為標點錯誤而造成fragment。例如：

•Incorrect: The boy got punished by the teacher. Because he was late for school again.

•Incorrect: Because he was late for school again. The boy got punished by the teacher.

第一例是主要子句+附屬子句的結構，改正方法是去掉teacher後面的句點，用小寫的because：

•Correct: The boy got punished by the teacher because he was late for school again.

第二例反過來，是附屬子句+主要子句的句型。這時，需把again後面的句點去掉，加逗點，the boy小寫：

•Correct: Because he was late for school again, the boy got punished by the teacher.

5. Late in the evening walking with her dog on the main street that was very crowded and had many large shops. (21 words)

印象中這種錯誤在我的教學經驗中不常出現，可能因為多數人對分詞構句不夠熟悉 ，因此不敢輕易使用。這種保守也許是對的。因為即使我們知道應該在這個分詞片語之後加一個主要子句，也還得考慮子句的主詞和現在分詞walking所隱含的主詞是否一致的問題，如果兩個主詞不一致，句子依舊是錯的。所以，保守一點的確比較好。

另一方面，既然這是可能的fragment，所以還是值得稍做說明。字組中有個人在走路，而且確定是女性（with her dog），that was到最後又是一個長長的形容詞子句 ，修飾street。沒啦！這位女性是誰？處此情境她的心情又如何？等等這些，我們都不得而知。完整的方式有：

•..., the girl felt very lonely.

•..., Helen did not know where to go.

•..., the old lady hoped that she could find her son.

由於分詞構句前後的主詞需要一致，因此如果我們這麼加就不對：

•..., a little boy was looking everywhere to find his mother.

相信聰明的讀者一定猜得到，縱使我們不知道誰是字組中真正的主詞，但至少一定是女性，怎麼也不可能變成a little boy。

顯然，上面的例子中有的結構並不好。所以這麼舉例，刻意把句子寫長，是想讓大家充份了解絕對不是句子寫長了就好、就沒問題，很多時候是恰恰相反的。就算沒有fragment，長句也容易因拖泥帶水或語意不清而大減力道。當然，也不能一直寫短句，長短適度交錯才有節奏和美感，只不過寫長句時得分外小心就是。

To Repeat or Not to Repeat－細說英文中的避免重複問題

A. 有些重複不只不可避免，甚至是必要的：

在「給寫作初學者一把鑰匙」一文中我們曾提到不要那麼在意「重複」。例如以下這個僅僅只有兩句話的段落中就重複了3次differences。其中，第二個句子還用了兩次。

Undoubtedly, many of the differences traditionally believed to exist between the sexes are based on stereotypes. But despite this, evidence from recent brain research indicates that many behavioral differences between men and women are based on differences in brain functioning that are biologically inherent and unlikely to be modified by cultural factors alone.

這個小段落出自"The Other Difference between Boys and Girls"一文。文章中，神經學家Richard Restak綜合各方和他自己的研究，主張男女因腦部結構不同而影響身心機能的發展與表現。因此，教育制度和考試方式應當因應這樣的差異而有所調整，以達到真正的公平。由此可知，「不同」(differences)是全文的關鍵點之一，適度地重複不僅難以避免，而且必要。

有時，不僅僅是字或詞，甚至一個句子都可能不斷重複。例如：

I want a wife who will take care of my physical needs. I want a wife who will keep my house clean. A wife who will pick up after me. I want a wife who will keep my clothes clean, ironed, mended, replaced when need be, and who will see to it that my personal things are kept in their proper place so that I can find what I need the minute I need it. I want a wife who cooks the meals, a wife who is a good cook. I want a wife who will plan the menus, do the necessary grocery shopping, prepare the meals, serve them pleasantly, and then do the cleaning up while I do my studying. I want a wife who will care for me when I am sick and sympathize with my pain and loss of time from school. I want a wife to go along when our family takes a vacation so that someone can continue to care for me and my children when I need a rest and change of scene.

以上段落出自一篇同樣叫做"I Want a Wife"的文章。文章中，作者Judy Syfers用詼諧、誇張和反諷的筆觸，包裹著她強烈的女性主義訴求。筆法當中，也包括I want a wife的不斷重複。藉著這樣的重複，Syfers像是在對父系傳統孕育下的男性讀者提出質問：假如大家光是「讀」這篇文章就覺得煩，那麼得在這樣的體系下「做」妻子的女人又該如何耐煩呢？考量作者這樣的寫作目的，I want a wife的不斷重複無疑地具有加分效果。但仍得再一次強調，無端的重複是該盡量避免的。

B. 適時地應用助動詞與代名詞避免重複：

在「給寫作初學者一把鑰匙」中，我們還提到避免重複不只是當我們寫關於「大學」的文章時呆板地讓university和college交互出現，而是要擴大同義字的思維與想像。這裡想再補充一點，就是助動詞和代名詞的使用。

例1：

Despite his prominence and the respect in which he was held by his fellow Catholics, Karol Jozef Wojtyla's election as Pope John Paul II came as a surprise. "I was afraid to receive this nomination," he told the crowd. "But I did it in the spirit of obedience to our Lord and in the total confidence in His mother, the most holy Madonna."

在這段敘述中，已故教宗若望保祿二世告訴群眾，儘管戰戰兢兢，但基於對主的服從和對聖母瑪利亞的信靠，他決定承擔聖職。所以，斜體字did it就是早先提到過的receive this nomination。

例2：

A connection between animal behavior and earthquakes could be made, but not all earthquakes cause unusual animal behavior while others do.

這句說的是動物行為與地震之間或許存在著因果關係。然而，並非所有的地震都會引發動物的不尋常行為，儘管某些地震的確會。那麼，斜體字do代表的是哪個或哪些字呢？我聽到了，你說指的是cause unusual animal behavior。答對了，聰明！另外，還得注意這裡的others是指other earthquakes。尤其要注意句中的while是「雖然」、「儘管」的意思，這是很常見的用法。

C. 英文中的「隱形重複」問題：

有些英文用法，表面上並未重複先前提過的字或字串，但從語意或字根字首的角度說，它們算是某種形式的重複。這種情況，英文稱為redundancy，也就是「冗贅」或「多餘」的意思。以下是一些redundancy的常見例子。由於嚴格說來這些情況不算是文法錯誤，只是太過累贅，所以我說它們是Not Good，而不說是Incorrect。

1.Not Good: He is a man who is brave.

這個句子明顯累贅。以下是比較精簡的說法：

Better: He is a brave man.

Better: He is a man of bravery.

2. total就是總數，所以「6個男孩」不要說a total of 6 boys，直接說6 boys就行。

3.Not Good: The old lady lives alone by herself.

alone就是by oneself，兩者只能選一個用。

Better: The old lady lives alone.

Better: The old lady lives by herself.

4.Not Good: She is an extroverted/ introverted girl.

雖然字典的確查得到extroverted（外向的）和introverted（內向的）這兩個形容詞。但相較之下名詞extrovert（外向者）和introvert（內向者）更常用。所以，「她是個外向/內向的女孩」最好說成：

Better: She is an extrovert/ introvert.

5. cooperate中的co-是表示「共同」、「互相」或「一起」等的字首，所以單單說cooperate就好，不要說cooperate together。

6.Not good: This shirt is green/ red/ blue in color.

大家都能夠知道green等就是顏色，所以再加上in color自屬多餘。

Better: This shirt is green/ red/ blue.

7. 不要說personally, I think/ feel。因為大家一看到I think/ feel就知道我們要發表個人觀點，自然不用再說personally。

8. 同樣地，personal opinion/ view等也是冗贅的敘述，因為opinion和view所陳述的也是個人看法：

Her opinions are usually based on facts.

In my opinion/ view, you are wrong.

9. re-是字首again的意思，所以「再說一次」不要說repeat again，應該 說repeat或say again。

10. 除了again之外，re-也有back的意思。所以return back明顯畫蛇添足，應該說return/ come back/ go back。

When do you come/ return home?

He has returned/ gone back to Taipei.

11. 如同提到green等就不要再說in color，說了small/ large就不要再說in size，說了square/ round/ rectangular就不要再說in shape。

Not Good: This house is small/ large in size.

Better: This house is small/ large.

Not Good: This table is square/ round/ rectangular in shape.

Better: This table is square/ round/ rectangular.

12. 因為summarize是「做摘要」，摘要自然是簡單明瞭，所以不要說summarize briefly，說summarize就可以。

13. 「包圍」當然是從四面八方團團圍住，所以說surrounded就好，說surrounded on all sides是沒有道理的。

14. 由於circum-是字首round（環繞），所以surrounding circumstances是不對的，應該說circumstances。

15.Not Good: She began to write her own autobiography.

auto-就是self，own也是，兩者不應該同時使用。嚴格說起來，只要有所有格her，auto-和own都不要也行。

She began to write her own biography.

She began to write her autobiography.

Better: She began to write her biography.

介紹一個有用的句型

在「單字與閱讀 (一)」中，我們曾提到一個常見且重要的英文句構，還說有機會要細說。那個句型是：A is no/ not any more than B－A和B都不…。例子是：Tom does not believe in Islam any more than John does.（Tom和John都不信伊斯蘭教）

這確實是一個出現頻率不低的句型。當時在慈濟上散文，一個學期選用的文章不會超過20篇，這個句型出現的就多達三、四次，要刻意找可能都還不容易找這麼多呢！它的實用和常用可見一般。儘管它的形式有些變化，但關鍵全在A與B的確認，一旦確認了句子就不難解。以下是另外的一些例子：

•He is not handsome any more than his wife is beautiful. （他不帥，他老婆也不漂亮）

•Eating pizza and playing soccer doesn't make us Italian, any more than drinking Coke or playing baseball turns the Japanese into Americans. （日本人不會因為喝可樂或打棒球就變成美國人，我們美國人也不會由於吃pizza和踢足球就變成義大利人）

•He wrote no more beautiful poetry than a 9-year-old boy could. （他寫不出美麗的詩篇，就像一個9歲孩子寫不出來一樣）（如果他能寫，一個9歲大的孩子也寫得出）

•He is no more fit to be a President than a schoolboy would be. （假如他能當總統，小學生也能）（兩個都不能）

•No one has any more of a choice to be gay than to be black or white or male or female. （會不會成為同性戀不是我們所能決定的，就像我們無法選擇膚色或性別一樣）

•I should no more like to be without a cat than to be without a dog. （我喜歡貓，也喜歡狗）（原來的否定「都不喜歡」有了without轉為雙重否定變肯定「都喜歡」）

「雖然」、「但是」有好多！

「雖然John很窮，卻很快樂」這句中文，大家能想出幾種英文表達方式呢？有以下這些，至少：

•John is poor, but/ yet he is happy.

•Although/ Though/ While/ Whereas John is poor, he is happy.

•John is happy although/ though he is poor.

•John is happy, while/ whereas he is poor. （注意句中逗點的使用）

•Despite/ In spite of/ For all John's poverty, he is happy.

•John is happy despite/ in spite of/ for all his poverty.

•Poor as John is, he is happy.

•John is poor; however/ nevertheless, he is happy.

怎麼用英文表示「越來越…」

假如「越來越…」後面接的是形容詞或副詞，得用一個非常關鍵的字increasingly：

•He becomes increasingly selfish.

•He studies increasingly hard.

假如是「越來越多的…」後面接可數的複數名詞，則要用一個關鍵的表達方式a growing number of：

•A growing number of people like traveling abroad.

•A growing number of rivers in Taiwan have been seriously polluted.

小句子、大問題

前幾天我指導我的國一生動詞時態，讀到這麼一個句子：

•He said (that) he had learned English many years.

起初，我覺得這個句子是錯的，因為我認為many years前面要有個for：

•He said (that) he had learned English for many years.

但很快地，我就知道他沒錯。於是我問了好幾個人，問他們加不加for究竟有什麼不同？我首先給他們沒有for的。他們都覺得句子有點怪，但說不出怪在哪裡。接著我給他們有for的，果然他們認為這樣就沒問題了。我說其實兩句都對，只是意思有些不同。問起不同在哪，他們則說不出。

我所說的「大問題」，就是我所問的人英文程度至少都有中等以上。很有可能他們可以回答比上兩句難上三倍的英文考題，例如有關假設語氣或關係子句的複雜問題。然而，對於上述只有國中程度的句子，他們卻不知其所以然。這不是臺灣英文教育空洞、根基不扎實的又一指標嗎？所以，國人的英文問題恐怕不只擅讀寫不擅聽說這一項而已。

我們都學過完成式，也知道for是表示持續一段期間的介系詞。因此，上述的句子假如有for，表示某人到他說話之前已經連續學了好幾年英文。又因為除非文意特別強調，否則用完成式也可以表示完成進行式想要傳達的概念。也就是說，說話者當時的英文學習可能還持續著，並未終斷。那麼，如果沒有for呢？首先，說話者的英文學習在他said以前肯定已經停止，而且也不無可能早已停止。其次，他過去的英文學習也非常可能時斷時續。

但願這是我的特殊經驗，也是特例，不然台灣的英文教育問題恐怕就比想像的要嚴重許多、複雜許多。

讓你賺很大的5個英文用法

在英文的表達中，有些只要一個字就能抵過兩三個字或甚至一長串敘述。這種字主要是副詞，其它如動詞等也有，但明顯較少。以下將介紹5個可以讓我們的英文表述更加精簡且漂亮的字，4個是副詞，1個是動詞。不用說，類似用法的副詞還得加上我們在「單字與閱讀（一）」詳細介紹過的otherwise。

1. hopefully：這個字可以翻譯成為「如果運氣好的話」。在英文的表達中假如不用hopefully，就得這麼說：if the hope succeeds；it is to be hoped that…；if it's lucky enough。

•Hopefully, I will finish my paper this weekend.

•Hopefully, we will be there by this time tomorrow.

2. arguably：強調我們所提出的主張或論點有充分理由做為支持（there are good reasons why something might be true）。

•He is arguably the greatest playwright of our country. （說他是我國最偉大的劇作家是有充分道理的）

•He is arguably the best driver of his generation.

•Arguably, war is inevitable. （我們）有理由說戰爭（永遠）無法避免。

3. seemingly：意思是某人、事、物表面看起來是這樣，但事實可能是，也可能不是，且不是的機率明顯較高。例如要表示John表面看起來誠實，但其實並不誠實，如果不用seemingly，就得說成：

•On the face of it, John is honest. However, he is not.

或

•John is honest in appearance but dishonest in reality.

用seemingly之後，句子就可簡化為：

•John is seemingly honest.

儘管這麼說暗示John也許誠實，但這個可能已經明顯降低，何況不把話說滿或許更好。seemingly最常用來修飾形容詞，也可以修飾動詞或副詞。

•Star Wars is a seemingly simple story of good versus evil.

•The new minister was faced with a seemingly impossible task.

•Alice was standing in the street, seemingly oblivious to the rain.

•To Jason, life was a seemingly endless journey.

•Some seemingly good luck brings us nothing but trouble.

•The employer seemingly agreed with the employees' request for a raise of salaries.

•He worked seemingly hard.

4. vice versa：當有並陳的兩種說法，且後一種和前一種正好相反時，第二種說法之前就可以用拉丁字vice versa（反之亦然）。由於有兩種說法並陳，且被省略的顯然也是句子，所以vice versa之前需要有逗點和對等連接詞，連接詞通常是and，也有可能是or或but。

•Last year, the sun almost scorched the fields when farmers desired rain, and vice versa. （vice versa代表的是當農夫們需要好天氣時反而狂下雨）

•People who love dogs often dislike cats and vice versa. （vice versa代表的是愛貓人通常不愛狗）

•You clean the house and I cook, or vice versa. （或者是你煮飯，我打掃房子）

•We thought that Tom would kill John, but vice versa. （但結果是John把Tom給殺了）

5. backfire：意思是某件事情的結果和原來期待的正好相反（to have an effect opposite to the one intended）。如果句子的上下文夠清楚，相關的因果也不一定要說明。

•His plan to get rich backfired, and he lost all his money. （he lost all his money可以不提）

•Jack's wish to marry Ann backfired. （Jack可能不只沒有娶到Ann，甚至連朋友也做不成呢！）

•The company's policy backfired when a number of employees threatened to quit. （公司原來的政策顯然是要拉攏員工，卻不幸適得其反）

approve/ approve of差很大

老實說，這兩個用法一直到幾年前我用起來都覺得心虛。每回和系上同事說話聊天用到它們，心裡就有些不安，之後總會偷查字典，看看自己究竟用對了沒有。幾次以後覺得這樣不行，於是下決心要擺平它們。

只要一翻字典，誰都能馬上知道approve of是對人、事、物的正面肯定或認同，也就是「贊成」。但這純粹是一種個人的意見表達，並不能改變什麼。

•I don't approve of smoking.

•Nobody approves of selfish people.

說到approve，它則用來表示有權做決定者對某計畫等的「核准」或「通過」。

•Legislators did not approve the government's plan of increasing the income tax.

•The mayor approved the proposal to build a new bridge.

問題是，要怎麼把上面說的這些用法差別牢牢地放在心中，永遠不跑掉呢？這應該也不難。我們或許可以這麼想：因為我們只是一些small potato，為了讓說出來的話多點份量，就得請of出來壯一下聲勢，安慰一下自己。相反地，那些在上位者令出能行必行，要通過什麼就能通過，哪裡需要of來湊熱鬧？因此，儘管approve/ approve of差很大，用錯會鬧笑話，但想清楚了就不怕。還有還有，下次您若有幸碰到蔡總統，可千萬別跟她這麼說喔：

•Dear President, I totally approve what you have said and done.

Come in Time/ Come on Time，哪個到得比較早？

一個基本上不存在的問題

在學英文的過程中，我們或許都問過自己類似上述的問題，而且也可能不只問過一次。有趣的是，我們卻很少去尋求這個問題的解答，儘管他並不難辦到。究其原因，應該是我們認為只要知道on time是準時、in time是及時就夠了，就算對這個問題有了交代。我自己，也是這樣的人之一。

從定義說，這兩個片語之間並不存在早晚的問題。因為in time的意思是early or soon enough－來得及或趕得上（做某事、參與某活動等）。一旦沒有in time而錯過某事就可能在一段期間無法彌補（如例1和例3）或甚至永遠無法彌補（如例4）。即使沒有錯不錯過的問題，意義也往往大不同。如例2，沒有in time回家吃晚餐還是可以照樣吃，但自己一個人吃與和家人一起吃的氛圍總是不一樣。不過，儘管不in time可能造成無法挽回的結果，但因為他通常用來指私領域的事情，所以大體上說並沒有法律或道德層面的問題。

至於on time的意思則是at the right time－準時或按時。相較於in time、on time經常涉及公眾事務，也因此較常有法律和道德的意涵。值得注意的是，on time的time不必然是某時某刻那麼特定的時間點。例如老師要學生交作業，期限是一個星期。那麼，只要在規定的那星期內交都算是「準時」。此外，沒有on time當然不好，但在大多數情形下並沒有錯不錯過的問題。例如沒有on time開會只是遲到，誤點的火車還是會來，老師通常也會接受遲交的作業等。

EXAMPLES:

•He caught the train in time because it did not leave on time.

•Will you be home in time for dinner?

•The father is usually home in time to see the children before they go to bed.

•If he gets to the hospital in time, he'll be able to see his father for the last time.

•The 9:45 train to Taipei left on time.

•Three people did not come to the meeting on time this morning.

•If you don't submit the assignment on time, you will be punished by the teacher.

•We should always be on time.

我所以會開始想這個題目，完全得感謝請我家教的國一學生。假如沒有這個因緣， 我會跟很多人一樣，繼續滿足於「準時」和「及時」的說法。當然，我也可以這樣教他，因為絕大多數的老師都是這麼教的，絕大多數的文法書也只是這麼寫。

如果還得感謝什麼，我應該感謝我能夠具有想事情的習慣。想像力絕對不只是用來賞析文學或設計東西。他幾乎可以幫助我們所有的事情。甚至於，他能幫助我們超脫許多人生的困境。就像這麼簡單的兩個片語，我卻能寫這麼一大篇，沒有想像力是不可能辦到的。

contact和with並沒有那麼好

常有人造出以下這種錯誤的句子卻不自知：

INCORRECT: Contact with me when you are free.

有一回一個朋友寫出這樣的句子，被我糾正後還很詫異地說：「我怎麼從來不知道這是不對的」之所以會錯用with，主要是受了中文的影響。因為我們會跟人家說「有空時和我聯絡。」這個「和」的概念很多時候的確是用介系詞with。contact所以不能接with並不是它特別，而是我們錯把及物動詞的contact錯認為不及物。contact 就和call（打電話）等很多及物動詞一樣，後面得直接接受詞。「有空打電話給我」說Call me when you are free. 同樣地：

CORRECT: Contact me when you are free.

因此為了永遠避免錯誤，我們應該把上句的中文翻成、記成「有空時聯絡我。」至於「跟我去」為什麼是go with me呢？原因是go為不及物動詞。試想：go me是多麼奇特的說法！即使要表示「去哪裡」，除了home、there等之外，「去」的地方之前也還要加個介系詞to。總之，一定不要硬記go後面得加with，contact不用，應著眼於動詞特性（及物或不及物）才是正途。

不過不過，英文令人討厭的例子又一樁了！儘管動詞contact後面不加with，但名詞contact卻需要（keep in/ lose contact with）：

CORRECT: Let's keep in contact with each other forever and ever!

CORRECT: I've lost contact with her since graduation from college.

要怎麼治療—cure、heal和treat

這三個字都是治療的意思，但意思不同。cure指治病，heal指治傷，包括身體的和心理的傷。同時，這兩個字都強調可以治癒。如果不這麼強調，也就是能不能治癒並不確定就要用treat。

例句:

•This medicine can cure hepatitis.

•My knife wound was completely healed.

•Many people say that time can heal all sorts of sorrow.

•My uncle is a doctor who treats lung cancer.

一個中式英文的例子－every time when

我的作文課曾有學生寫了類似以下的句子： I feel very happy every time when I see her. （每一次當我看見她時都覺得非常開心） 

很明顯地，這是把中文「每一次當…」直接翻譯成英文every time when，是不折不扣的中式英文。事實上，every time的意思是whenever。所以說every time when就等於說whenever when，是明顯的畫蛇添足。

上面那句話可以使用以下兩種表達方式其中的一種：
I feel very happy every time I see her. I feel very happy whenever I see her. 
或者：I never see her without feeling very happy. 
如果不用every time或whenever，只用when說：
I feel very happy when I see her，這麼一來不只語氣強度大為降低，更重要的是有著動詞時態的錯誤。因為這樣說會讓人覺得是在說某特定的一次見面。

假如是某特定的一次，那麼這個碰面從邏輯上說應該已經發生過，用現在簡單式也不對，得用過去式，也就是得把動詞feel和see分別改成felt和saw說：I felt very happy when I saw her.

for the sake of不等於because of

由於for the sake of的意思是「為了…的緣故」，所以有人可能會把它等同於because of。事實上，because of的適用範圍要比for the sake of大很多。一切可能的原因，不管是正面或負面都可以用。至於for the sake of所陳述的理由一般是正面的。

比較：

•She moved to Taipei for the sake of/ because of her father.

•They canceled the picnic because of （不能用for the sake of）the rain.

女生為了就近照顧或陪伴爸爸而搬到台北，動機是溫暖和貼心的，所以是for the sake of。因為下雨而不能去郊遊即使不掃興應該也很難讓人開心，所以只能用中性的because of。

hardly的故事

一兩個月前，一位上過我散文課的學生在平台上留言給我：「很懷念老師的課hardly！」

這事情是這樣：我問他們，應該說I hardly can speak English或I can hardly speak English。

如果把hardly視為副詞，那麼我們知道副詞在句子中的位子較有彈性，所以嚴格說來兩個位子都可以。尤其從中文的角度看hardly can可能更容易讓華人接受，因為「幾乎不會」嘛！哈哈哈！但可惜這是英文，所以我們要用英文的角度，因此應該說can hardly。

這個故事的重點是：既然會有中文的干擾，我們要怎麼樣確保牢記can hardly而不忘呢？有一帖萬靈藥，用了保證終生有效。那就是我們知道hardly是否定副詞所以有它就不能有not等一類的字。有人會說not can嗎？

不會，是不是？因此，只要我們記住can not多久我們就會記住can hardly多久。

這麼好的一帖秘方，要記得用，並大家告訴大家喔！好心會有好報的！

說I win you就輸了

輸贏的英文說法

英文的win是贏得比賽、獎品、戰爭等。如果要說贏了某人，則必須用beat。

•I beat my wife at tennis yesterday.

•Trump beat Hillary in the 2016 American presidential election.

•I won the tennis game yesterday.

•Trump won the 2016 American presidential election.

如果是輸了比賽要用lose+比賽等。比賽等中輸了某人則要用lose to或be beaten by某人。

•My wife lost the tennis game yesterday.

•Hillary lost the 2016 American presidential election.

•My wife lost to me/ was beaten by me at tennis yesterday.

•Hillary lost to/ was beaten by Trump in the 2016 American presidential election.

同時，表示輸贏的lose和win也可以不接受詞。

•I admit that you have won and I have lost.

•Even if our team just won by one point, we still won; even if your team lost by one point only, you still lost.

註：「勝利在望」或「勝券在握」可以說成Victory is in sight或Victory is secure。

另外：win和beat都可以用片語by a large margin修飾，指「大勝」；用by a small margin修飾，意為「險勝」。

•The athlete beat (defeated) his opponent by a large margin.

•Our team won (the match) by a small margin.

ignore和neglect的比較

當我問學生這兩個字的差別時，多數人總會說其中一個的意思是「忽視」，另一個是「忽略」等等。但這樣的記法不出三天就會不知所「忽」了。這原因不是我們的記憶不好，而是上述兩個中文詞彙本就大同小異。因此，這篇小章不只要說明ignore和neglect的不同(這很多地方都可以找到)，更主要的是要分享一個「永遠有效」的記法。

1. ignore是指刻意地不理睬。這種不理睬有時是必要的，也有可能出於惡意，例如：

•To avoid giving babies a wrong hint, we may sometimes ignore their cry.

•The school ignored the students' requests to hire more teachers and purchase more books.

2. neglect是無意識或無心的忽略，有時意思很接近forget。此外，它也指在工作或職責方面的疏忽。例如：

•The public neglected his genius for many years.

•He neglected to return the call.

•She tends to neglect the household chores.

3. 重點來了，要怎麼牢記這兩個字的不同呢？其實很簡單！當今這個時代很少人沒用過電腦。當電腦要我們忽略某個步驟或程序時會用哪個字呢？IGNORE！因為電腦要使用者「刻意的忽視」。好幾次上課我教學生這麼記，得到的反應都非常好。所以，祝福有緣讀到這篇文章的人也同樣和我慈濟大學的學生一樣，永遠和ignore與neglect的用法困擾說再見！

你可能不知道的in和after

由於in主要的意思是「把…涵蓋在內」，因此我們很容易用他來表示「在一段時間內」，但in的這種用法幾乎只出現在非未來式的句子中。在未來式中，in的意思是「在某段時間的最後」。假如我們要說的是在未來某段時間內，應用介系詞within。至於如果用介系詞after呢？他主要用來敘述一種時間、事情或計畫的次序。相對於in、after用來表示若干時間之後將要發生的事則比較不明確，所以經常用在after a while這個片語中。

EXAMPLES:

•She learned Chinese in four years. （她在四年內學會中文）

•It was amazing how much we managed to do in a day! （我們在一天之內能夠做這麼多事，真神奇）

•It's 10:30 now, I'll be back in 30 minutes. （現在是10:30，我會在30分鐘後（11點）回來）

•It's 10:30 now, I'll be back after 30 minutes. （多半11點回來，也不無可能在晚一些）

•It's 10:30 now, I'll be back within 30 minutes. （最慢11點前會回來）

•You'll get used to it after a while.

•After five minutes, check the pizza in the oven.

•They will return the day after tomorrow.

•We will leave after breakfast.

•The party begins after the ceremony.

恩怨情仇在英文－marry、divorce和engage

這個單元要說的是結婚、離婚與訂婚的說法：

A. marry

1. A和B結婚要說A married B或A was (got) to B。被動時這個介系詞to要特別注意。另外，marry可接受詞，也可以不接。

•John married/ was married to/ got married to Mary.

•John married Mary.

•John was married to/ got married to Mary.

•John will marry Mary or nobody. （John非Mary莫娶）

•Mary will marry John or nobody. （Mary非John莫嫁）

•John married late in life. （John晚年才結婚）

•John never married. （John終身未婚）

2. marry還有兩個意思：一是「為…主持婚禮」，二是「把…嫁人」或「為…娶妻」。

•A former teacher married John and Mary.

•John's father married him to Mary.

•Mary's mother married her to John.

B. divorce

1. 和marry一樣，divorce可以用主動與被動，但用被動時的句型是be/ get divorced from。同樣的，它也可以不接受詞。此外，divorce也用來指第三者使夫妻離婚。

•Mary divorced/ was divorced from/ got divorced from John.

•Mary and John divorced (each other) last month.

•The court divorced Mary and John.

2. 動詞之外，divorce也用作名詞。

•Some religions do not allow divorce.

•Mary obtained a divorce after years of domestic violence.

•It is much easier to get a divorce than it used to be.

「訂婚」要以be engaged的方式表達，其後可接介系詞to。

•John and Mary are engaged.

•John is engaged to Mary.

注：「一對怨偶」叫an ill-assorted couple；「一對佳偶」稱a well-assorted couple。

不是My Friend喔！

下面這個句子可能不能說不對，但至少不夠好：

•My friend and I went to the movies yesterday.

問題出在my friend，因為在正常的情況下我們不會只有一個朋友。所以，明顯較 好的寫法是：

•A friend (of mine) and I went to the movies yesterday.

不只單數my friend，嚴格說來複數my friends都有欠精準。因為，當我們提到朋友時，通常不會指全部。所以，some friends of mine是比較合理的說法。由此可以推知，縱使真的要指所有朋友也應該說all friends of mine.

•Some friends of mine encouraged me to study abroad.

•All friends of mine treat me well.

不過，以下的句子是對的：

•My friend Lisa and I went to the movies yesterday.

這樣說沒問題，因為句中的my friend不是別人，是專指Lisa。假如作者是在敘述 前一天和Lisa的互動。那麼，接著他可能會這麼寫：

•After the movie, we walked home. Suddenly, a dog rushed out of a house, barking angrily. My friend was frightened to death.

作者所以這麼寫，是因為讀者已經知道my friend指的是誰。不過，作者比較可能的寫法是：Lisa was frightened to death.

可是，我們不是經常說my cat、my dog嗎？那是因為只養一隻貓或一隻狗是比較常見的情況。再看兩個句子：

•Yes, this is my book.

•I lost a book on the bus.

我們通常有很多本書，為什麼第一句用my，第二句用a呢？第一句的情境可能是A撿到一本書，問是不是B的，於是B做了以上的回答。何況，單從this也可以讓我們知道那是指特定的一本，跟先前my friend Lisa的道理一樣。至於第二句，說話者並沒有說他在公車上弄丟的書究竟是哪一本，理論上他更不可能只有一本書，自然要用a book。

要怎麼說「數字」-number、numeral、figure和digit

這四個字當中，number是指一整個數字，numeral是指阿拉伯數字或羅馬數字等整個數字系統。至於figure和digit則指0~9這十個數目字，但這個意思現在比較常用digit。還不了解嗎？沒關係。看了下面的例句你就絕對會清楚明白。

•The Arabic numeral 10354 is a number of five digits/figures.

你夠認識我嗎－of的自訴
各位各位，請看過來！雖然我們是認識多年的老朋友了，但你們真的夠了解我嗎？

隨便說吧，下面提到的我的3個特質你知道嗎？假如你早就知道，那我真的很開心； 如果你現在才知道也沒關係，只要幫我多多宣傳，我還是一樣很高興的喔！

1. 你們可以把我放在一個英文句子的最前面，這時候我的意思就會變成among。同時呢，這種句子經常會有一個最高級的形容詞。

•Of all students in this class, Lisa is the most diligent.

•Of all the current technology, smart phones have probably had the greatest influence on daily life.

•Of the 30 students who responded to the survey, 21 admit to regular television viewing.

•Of these 21 students, 16 have difficulty in class because they often do not complete their assignments on time.

2. 小心！下面這個句子是錯的喔！
   Incorrect: These two books are the same type.
   為什麼不對？因為裡面沒有我啦，哈哈！不過不過，這絕對不是我愛現，而是它真的需要我。我想很多人一定聽說過主詞補語這玩意兒。它和主詞的關係很像雙胞胎，彼此可以互換所扮演的角色。但上面這個句子的主詞是書，補語卻是type。type是書的類型（比如小說、傳記什麼的），不是書。the same type（同類型的）在這裡的功能是形容詞，進一步告訴我們這是兩本什麼樣的書。它就好像"These two books are interesting"中的interesting一樣，都不是主詞books的雙胞胎姊妹，而是在形容主詞。說到這裡，相信你們這些我最親愛的朋友、最最聰明的粉絲一定已經知道該怎麼辦了。沒錯，請我幫忙就對啦！

Correct: These two books are of the same type.

類似例子：
•These two shirts are of the same color. 
（襯衫不等於顏色）

•The four ropes are of different lengths. 
（繩子不等於長度）

•The three houses are of the same size. 
（房子和大小是兩馬子事）

•Jane and Lucy are of the same age. 
（人怎麼可能等於年齡）

•The matter is of considerable importance.
（這件事情很重要。重要性是形容事情的，不是事情本身）

這有很難嗎？假如不稍加深究，或許有些不容易吧！偷偷跟你們說喔，有個寫平臺的姓陳的，哪怕到了念完博士班，對這個還是知其然、不知其所以然呢！但其實，我們只要在上面那些句子的be動詞之後加上一個被省略的名詞（主詞），就更能了解箇中道理，也更能明白為什麼非我of不可，而不是其它介系詞：
•These two books are (books) of the same type.

•These two shirts are (shirts) of the same color.

•The four ropes are (ropes) of different lengths.

反之，以下兩個句子中be動詞後面的名詞才是books的補語，才是它們的雙胞胎姊妹，自然也就不需要我of幫忙啦：
•These two books are novels.

•These two books are Harry Potter and The Little Prince.

無論是第一句中的novels還是第二句的Harry Potter and The Little Prince都明確指出這兩本書究竟是什麼書，無庸置疑是它們的雙胞胎姊妹，所以是對的句子。

3. 當朋友們想對自己或別人所作的事情做評論時，我又有用啦，哈哈！大家可以套用下面的句型：
   It is / was + 形容詞 + of +人(所評論的對象) + 不定詞片語（所評論的事情/真正的主詞）

•It was very kind of you to say so.

•It is stupid of me to go out without a coat in such cold weather.

•It is very annoying of the school to have practiced the after-midnight light control.

假如想要加強語氣，更熱情地回應人家對我們所做的，那麼可以把句子寫成感嘆句，這時候就不需要be動詞。例如：
•How good of you to lend me your car!
怎麼樣？有沒有又多了解我一些呢？最後，還要再向大家拜託一次，要多多把我的故事分享給好朋友喔！謝謝！

When "Pay for?" When "Pay?" 從此搞定

相信很多人都知道要用英文表示「付」所買東西的錢要用pay for。例如pay for the book/ for these vegetables/ for the fruit等等。但是，看看下面兩個句子：

•I have to pay for the service.

•I didn't have enough money to pay for the meal.

另外：

•If you want to go to London, I will pay the traveling expenses.

•Let me pay the bill this time.

•He broke a traffic rule and had to pay a fine.

•The landlord reminded me that it's time to pay the rent.

•How much income tax do you pay?

要釐清pay與pay for的用法並不困難。對於我們買的或享用的東西就得有for。我們可以把它想成那是因為我們為了(for)某種東西、享受或服務而付錢(pay)。至於bill, rent, tax, expenses等都是「錢」的概念，只不過沒有明白說出是多少而已，其實它的道理就好像pay 5000 dollars一樣，自然不需要for。bill（帳款）等是要給出去的，不是拿來享受的，所以不用for。也就是說，我們pay for所享用的餐點或服務。bill不是我們享用的東西，而是一種面對消費結果和事實的提醒，如何能pay for呢？

「最近」看過recently、lately或these days嗎？

1. 從語意方面說，recently指不久前才發生的一件事，也可以和until連用，指本來持續的一種狀態到了前些日子才告一段落。就用法上說，除未來式之外，recently 幾乎可用於各種時態，但最常出現在過去式的句子中。用在完成式的recently有時也可以換成lately。

•The company recently opened a branch in New York.

•Tom recently bought a secondhand car.

•A new species of bird was recently discovered in Egypt.

•Until recently we had a female doctor. （那位女醫師在不久前已經離開）

•He was until very recently the most powerful banker in the city.

•We lived in Taipei until quite recently. We just recently moved to Tainan.

•The president has recently returned from a tour of South America.

•Howard has recently/ lately been promoted to assistant manager.

•It is only fairly recently that historians have begun to investigate the event.

2. 相較於recently，lately的使用就顯得受限許多。語意方面，它描述的是從不久前開始「直到現在」依舊持續或無法持續的某種情況。至於使用時機，它則幾乎只能置於完成式的情境中。

•I've been really busy lately, so I haven't been out much.

•Lately, my wife has had trouble sleeping.

•Dad's health hasn't been too good lately.

•There hasn't been much in the news lately.

•I haven't been feeling so well lately.

•Have you been doing anything interesting lately?

•A: Have you talked to Helen lately? B: Yes, I recently (NOT lately) talked to her.

•Howard has lately/ recently been promoted to assistant manager. The Board recently (NOT lately) promoted him.

•"Have you been to the seashore lately?" "No, we haven't been there lately."

3. these days是較不正式的用語，通常用於現在簡單式的句子中，描述某種有別於過去的目前趨勢、現象或習慣等，且這種趨勢或習慣可能將繼續一段相當的時間。

•The price of houses is so high these days, so they decide to rent an apartment.

•These days kids grow up so quickly.

•My father used to drive to work every day, but these days he usually rides his bike.

so和so that已經不一樣

在比較早的用法當中，so that可以等於so，意思是「所以」。但現在的so that多半不這麼用，而是用作表目的的附屬連接詞，等於in order that，中文可以說成「為了…」或「以便…」。so還是原本「所以」的意思，是表示結果的對等連接詞。

•She got up early so that she could catch the train. （她早起以便搭上火車 ）（不能用so）

•She got up early, so she caught the train. （她起得早，所以趕上火車）（不能用so that）

some time/ sometime別搞我

或許不少人對什麼時候該用some time和sometime感到困擾。期待看了這篇文章之後，這種困擾永遠成為過去。

首先，或許我們應該建立一個有用的英文學習觀念，那就是絕對不是長得很像的字或片語就真的那麼難以分辨。某種程度上，這也許是寫文法書的人在有意無意之間為我們營造的印象和錯覺，因為這麼一來才能突顯他們書的特色。就像之前一篇文章提過的a number of和the number of，一旦仔細思考和理解，就能很清楚地知道它們很不一樣，根本無須硬記死背。

同樣地，some time和sometime也沒有那麼不易釐清。事實上，some time就只是some再加上一個不確定數量的不可數名詞，好比some money、some water、some sugar那樣，some和time之間當然得空格。簡單說，some time就是「一些時間」，可能是20分鐘、3天、5個月等等。不知道多長多久，就是「一些時間」。

•Are you coming? I have been waiting for you for some time.

•It took me some time to finish the work.

•Please give me some time to consider the matter.

至於sometime，它是指某個未明確指出的時間點，例如是昨天、下星期三、去年五月、2008年等。一個時間點是一個整體，是一個整體就不應該被分斷，就好像我們不能把yesterday、Tuesday和July這些字分開一樣。另外，sometime之後通常會再加一個時間副詞，用來說明是一段較長時間範圍內的某個較短的時間點，例如sometime in January（1月份的某個時間）。

•I will go to Taipei sometime next week.

•I will call you sometime this afternoon.

•A friend came to see me sometime yesterday.

聽！some time和sometime好像正滿腹委屈地在對我們說：「我們真的一點都不難搞！我們一點都不難搞，真的！」

PART II 主題單字

誤導閱讀的單字

所謂誤導閱讀的單字，是指某些非常常見的單字，卻有著我們可能不知道的意思。但正因為這些字太普通了，反倒讓我們忽略了推敲查閱的過程，於是造成了閱讀上的誤導。當然，哪些字應屬誤導閱讀的單字與每個人的閱讀經驗和主觀判斷密切相關，以下所列是我個人的整理：

address1: a speech, especially one that has been formally prepared, made to a group of people gathered especially to listen 正式演說

•Pope John Paul II delivered more than 2000 public addresses during his lifetime.

address2: (formal) to think about a problem or a situation and decide how to deal with it 解決；處理；因應

•Your essay does not address the real issues.

affair: (informal) object; thing 物體；東西

•Her dress is a long silky affair.

•My new smart phone is an amazing affair.

•The wallet my boyfriend gave me for my birthday was a fancy affair.

air1: the general character or appearance of something; appearance of, or feeling caused by, a person or place 外表；模樣；態度；氣氛

•There was an air of excitement at the meeting.

•The worker protested against the wrongful dismissal with the air of a man defending himself against a large group of merciless enemies.

air2: that part of a piece of music that is easily recognized and remembered; tune 曲調；歌調

•He whistled an air softly to himself.

apply: to be pertinent, suitable, or relevant 適用

•The theory doesn't apply.

approach: a manner or method of doing something 方法

•That critic's approach to the poem is quite different from anyone else's.

•This is a new approach to teaching languages.

arms: weapons of war 武器

•One question with which China's high-ranking leaders are preoccupied may be whether China will be able to take the place of supremacy without any country resorting to arms.

•Arms control is an issue that literally concerns everyone in the world.

balance: money or something else which remains or is left over 餘數；餘額

•My bank balance is not very large any more.

•May I take the balance of my holidays before the end of November. （我是否可在11月底之前把假休完？）

ball: a large, formal dancing party 正式舞會

•Mary was the most beautiful and admired girl at the ball last night.

bid (for): to make a formal offer to do (something), fulfill (a contract), etc., at a certain price for acceptance; tender for 投標（做某事）

•Four firms bid for the contract on the new school.

•China and America agreed to bid jointly for global oil projects on which they had previously been competing.

blind: a covering, especially one made of cloth, that can be rolled up and down to cover a window inside a building 窗簾

•He walked to the window and raised the blind.

build: shape and size, especially of the human body 體格；體型

•The athlete has a powerful build.

•We are of the same build.

calling: a strong desire or feeling of duty to do a particular job; vocation 對某項工作的強烈愛好或使命感；天職

•My son had a calling to become a priest.

career: to go at full speed; rush wildly 急馳；猛衝

•The car careered uncontrollably down the hill.

•He is always careering about and breaking things.

cause: a principle or movement strongly defended or supported 理想；主義；原則；運動

•They worked in the cause of world peace.

caution: to warn against possible danger 警告

•Tom's mother cautioned him about the harm of smoking.

celebrate: to praise (someone or something) in writing, speech, etc. 頌揚

•Various great heroes are highly celebrated in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

•Few poets never write poems that celebrate the joys of love.

champion1: to support strongly 擁護；支持

•The crowd declared that no matter what obstacle they encountered, they would champion the principles of liberty and democracy.

champion2: a person who fights for, supports strongly, or defends a principle, movement, person, etc. 鬥士

•We should be champions of justice.

civil: polite 有禮貌的

•Try to be civil to her, even if you don't like her.

•The boy gave me a civil reply.

•Can't you be civil?

class: the fact that there are different social groups with different social and political positions and points of view 階級

•In ancient China, class was of great importance in the matter of marriage.

colony: a group of the same kind of animals or plants living or growing together in close association 一群（同類的動植物）

•A large colony of ants rushed out of their hole.

colors: the official flag of a country, ship, part of the army, etc. 旗幟（國旗、軍艦旗、 軍旗）

•The general was proud that his men had taken the enemy colors in battle.

•I am always ready to serve the colors.

confidence: a secret; some personal matter told secretly to somebody else 秘密；心裡話

•The two girls told each other confidences about their boyfriends.

concern: a business; firm 公司；商店

•Our concern only makes shoes for children.

consequence: (formal) importance 重要性

•It is of much consequence to me that the government has lost the election.

constitution: the general condition of a person's body or mind 身心狀況

•He is still under a weak constitution because he has just recovered from a serious illness.

count: to have merit, importance, value 有價值；有用；有重要性

•Every bit of help counts.

•You really count with me.

•That serious illness has brought home to him that health counts.

•The moral of this story is that every hour counts and therefore we should make the most of time.

•It is not how much you read but how much you understand that counts.

counter: to oppose; move or act in opposition to (something) 反對；駁回

•My employer countered my request for more money by threatening to dismiss me.

course: (of liquid) to flow or move rapidly （指液體）奔流

•Tears coursed down her cheeks.

•The lady's pulses beat fast, and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body.

court: (of a man) to spend time with or pay attention to a woman one hopes to marry （指男性對女性）追求

•Please teach me some tips to court a girl.

crop: (of an animal) to bite off and eat the tops of (grass, plants, etc.) （動物）吃草

•The sheep cropped the grass short.

culture: the practice of raising animals and growing plants or crops 培育；培植；栽培

•Bee culture is highly developed in this area.

•Silkworm culture is not as profitable as before.

•The culture of this uncommon flower is increasing in Taiwan.

custom: the habitual practice of a person 習慣

•His custom was to get up early and have a cold bath every morning.

date: to be no longer fashionable; to make somebody or something appear old-fashioned 過時；退流行；（指人）顯得老氣

•This type of music is beginning to date.

•Her clothes date her.

deserts: something deserved, especially bad or painful 應得的懲罰

•No matter how shamelessly the gangster behaves now, everybody believes that he will sooner or later get his just deserts.

develop1: to start to have a disease or illness 罹患（疾病）

•The study showed that one in twelve women is likely to develop breast cancer.

develop2: to make a photograph out of a photographic film, using chemicals 沖洗照片

•These photographs haven't developed very well.

divine: (literary) to discover or guess something 察覺；猜測

•Somehow the children had divined that he was lying.

drive1: a basic or instinctive need 本能的需求

•Hunger, thirst, and sex are among the strongest human drives.

drive2: a strong well-planned effort by a group （某一團體為達成某項特殊目的所用心籌劃並發起的運動）

•The club is having a membership drive.

drive3: a forceful quality of mind or spirit that gets things done 幹勁；活力

•Although she is over seventy, my grandmother remains to be a woman of great drive.

•He's clever, but he won't succeed because he lacks drive.

ear: the head of a grain-producing plant, such as wheat or corn, used for food （稻子、小麥等穀物的）穗

•Dropping ears of rice promise another good harvest.

effect: (formal) to cause, produce, or have as a result 實現

•I will effect my purpose; no one can stop me!

effects: (formal or law) belongings; personal property 財產

•The kind lady donated most of her effects to the charity.

elements: the weather, especially bad weather （壞）天氣

•In spite of the terrible storm he walked on, quite regardless of the elements.

end: an aim or purpose 目的；目標

•He wants to buy a house, and is saving money to/ for this end.

entertain1: (formal) to be willing to consider or accept (an idea, doubt, suggestion, etc.) 願意考慮或接受

•The entrepreneur never entertained the possibility of bankruptcy.

entertain2: to keep in the mind (thoughts or feelings); cherish; harbor 心裡懷著（某種想法或情感）

•He entertains a strong intention to revenge his dead brother in the future.

•She could never entertain the idea of living in the country.

exact: to demand and obtain by force, threats, etc. 苛求；強求

•The master exacted unconditional obedience from his servants.

exercise1: the use of a power or right （力量、權利的）運用

•You can only understand this poem by the exercise of imagination.

•By the exercise of his influence over the manager, John got his son a wellpaid job in the company.

exercise2: (often plural) a movement made by soldiers, naval ships, etc., in time of peace, to practice fighting 軍事演習

•100 ships left harbor today for exercises at sea.

•China protested strongly against America and Japan's exercises conducted in the west Pacific waters.

•Canada is already conducting naval exercises in the arctic waters, and making no secret of this.

fashion: manner; way 方法

•He behaves in a very strange fashion.

•He expressed his idea in a serious fashion.

fast1: firm; firmly fixed 牢固的

•The colors aren't fast, so be careful when you wash this shirt.

fast2: to eat no food, especially for religious reasons 齋戒

•To show his piety, the pilgrim had fasted for three days before entering the holy temple.

favor: to be unfairly fond of; treat with too much sympathy for one person as compared to others 偏袒

•The mother always favors his youngest son.

figure1: any of the number signs from 0 to 9 數字

•If you want to write in a formal essay a number greater than 9 and lesser than 100, you had better write it in words rather than in figures.

figure2: the shape of the human body, especially a woman's body that is attractive 體態；身材

•She has a good figure.

•I am dieting to keep my figure.

figure3: an important person 重要人物

•She is a figure in the development of modern Chinese fiction.

•Dr. Sun Yet-Sen was born a political and philosophical figure.

•Mother Teresa's humanity marked her as one of the dominant and most respected figures of the 20th century.

figure4: to be or seem important or prominent 具重要性；扮演重要角色

•Newton figured in the history of science.

fortune: wealth 財富

•His father has made great fortune by doing the jewelry business.

frequent: (formal) to be often in (a place, someone's company, etc.) 經常去

•She likes animals very much and frequents the zoo.

gift: a natural ability to do something 天才；天賦

•He has the gift of speaking well.

•She has a gift for music.

given1: prep. if one takes into account 如果考慮到；鑒於…

•Given their inexperience, they have done a good job.

•Given that they are inexperienced, they have done a good job.

given2: (be given to) to be in the habit of (doing) something 成為習慣的；熱衷於…

•He is given to (taking) long walks.

ground1: (of a boat or ship) to strike against the bottom or the ground 擱淺

•The ship grounded on a hidden sandbank.

ground2: the past and past participle of grind, to crush into small pieces or a powder by pressing between hard surfaces 已磨碎的

•These coffee beans have not been ground finely enough.

harbor: to keep in the mind (thoughts or feelings); cherish; entertain 心裡懷著（某種想法或情感）

•They secretly harbor thoughts of revolution.

import: (formal) meaning 意義

•The import of the letter was more a threat than an advice.

•This is a legal decision of far-reaching import.

industry: continual hard work; diligence 勤勞

•Taiwan's economic miracle has been created primarily by the Taiwanese industry and frugality.

interest: benefit; advantage 利益

•It's in your interest to put your point of view first.

•Whatever he does, he always has his own interest in mind.

last: the least likely 最不可能的

•He was the last person I thought would come.

lead: a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal, used for water pipes or to cover roofs 鉛

•The plumber was diagnosed as lead poisoning.

•Much lead was detected in the herb.

leave: permission 允許

•All this was done entirely without my leave.

let: to give the use of (a room, a building, land, etc.) in return for regular payments 出租

•We are hoping to let this apartment to a small family.

lift: to bring to an end; remove 結束；停止

•The unpopular tax was soon lifted.

long: to want very much 渴望

•He longed for spring.

•The girl missed her parents very much and longed to return home as soon as possible.

lot: fate; destiny; fortune 命運

•Her lot had not been a happy one.

•People must learn how to bear their lot.

•The poet sympathized with the laborers whose lot in life was hard and bitter.

master: to gain as a skill 精通

•He learned a lot but mastered nothing.

mean: average 平均的

•The mean yearly rainfall is 20 inches.

measure: an action taken to gain a certain end 措施

•This medicine may not help him, but it is the only measure I can take before the doctor comes.

•If he refuses to pay, I shall take measures against him.

•She took some measures to improve the order of her class.

meet: to satisfy 滿足；符合

•He almost met all of his father's hopes.

might: power; strength; force 力量

•The army fought bravely, but it was crushed by the might of its powerful enemy.

•He tried with all his might to move the heavy rock from the road.

minute: very small, in size or degree 細微的

•His writing is so minute that it is difficult to read.

moment: (formal) importance 重要性

•This is a matter of the greatest moment.

nature1: the qualities that make something different from others 特性；特質

•The nature of the new chemical is being tasteless, colorless, but extremely poisonous.

nature2: kind; type; sort 種類

•These two books are of the same nature.

number: a group 一群（人）

•Anyone, even of our own number, who went against this rule would be severely punished.

object: purpose; aim 目的；目標

•Profit is the object of business.

observe1: to make a remark; say 說；評論

•He observes frequently that clerks are not as polite as they used to be.

observe2: to act in accordance with (law or custom); obey 遵守；服從

•Wearing uniforms is a rule that the school requires students to observe.

observe3: to celebrate 慶祝

•Fifty years later there may be few people who know how to observe the Chinese New Year in a traditional way.

occasion1: direct cause 理由；原因

•His remark was the occasion of a bitter quarrel.

•You have no occasion to be angry.

•The real causes of the strike were not clear, but the occasion was the dismissal of two workers.

occasion2: (formal) to cause 引起；導致

•She had a long career break occasioned by her husband's job being moved to Rome.

of: (used for picking out in a group) among 在…之間

•Of all students in this class, Lisa is the most diligent.

order: kind; sort 種類

•This was something of a completely different order from what I had recommended.

otherwise1: differently; in another manner 不同地；以別種方式

•Under the circumstances, I can't believe otherwise. （在那種情形下我不得不那麼想）

•He should have been studying but he was otherwise engaged. （那時他應該得用功念書的，但卻在忙別的事）

•I thought she would bring her date to my birthday party, but she came otherwise. （我以為她會帶男朋友來參加我的生日宴會，可是並沒有）

•I hate him and I won't pretend otherwise. （我討厭他，也不會假裝喜歡他）

•I thought we have the same idea, but evidently you think otherwise. （我以為我們意見一致，但你顯然有不同的看法）

•He is not guilty until proved otherwise. （在證明有罪之前，他是無罪的）

•She is always in good spirits, so I don't know why she behaved otherwise yesterday. （她向來開朗活潑，所以我不知道她為什麼昨天怪怪的）

•The government claims that the economy is improving, but this survey suggests otherwise. （政府聲稱經濟正在好轉，但調查顯示的卻是另一回事）

otherwise2: apart from that, in other ways... 除這（那）之外，其它方面都…

•This was an otherwise perfect concert. = Except for a minor problem, the concert was perfect. = The concert would have been perfect if there had not been a minor problem. （要不是有點小問題，這場音樂會真是完美）

outstanding: not yet done or paid 未完成的；未付的

•There is some work/ There are some debts still outstanding.

own: to admit 承認

•I'm ashamed to own that I didn't study hard.

personal: (of things said) directed against (the appearance or character of) a particular person; rude 做人身攻擊的；無禮的

•Don't become personal even when you are in a heated debate.

•Let's avoid being personal. （讓我們對事不要對人）

plant: a factory 工廠

•My father worked in a chemical plant.

pool: to combine; share 合併；均分

•If we pool our ideas, we may be able to produce a really good plan.

•None of us can afford it separately, so let's pool our money.

possess: (often passive) (of an evil spirit or the devil) to enter into and become master of (someone) （指鬼魂等的）附身

•He claimed that he had been possessed by the spirit of his dead wife.

practice: habit; custom 慣例；習慣

•It is their practice to raise salary every year.

•It is the practice in our law to consider a person as not guilty until he has been proved guilty.

•It's not the usual practice for shops to stay open after 10 p.m.

•I'll lend you the money this time, but I don't intend to make a practice of it.

property: a quality, power, or effect that belongs naturally to something 性質；屬性

•Many plants have medicinal properties.

quarter: an area of a town （城鎮的）區（常指某特定族群聚集之處）

•I found a small apartment in the student quarter.

•This is the quarter of the Jews in New York.

•Anping is a historic quarter in Tainan.

rank: (of smell or taste) very strong and unpleasant （指異味或味道）刺鼻的；惡臭的

•The rank smell of vomit reached me.

regard: (formal) to look at (in the stated way) 看

•She regarded her husband closely.

•The father regarded his sick daughter anxiously.

relate: to tell (a story) 敘述；講述

•The father related to his children the story of his Africa adventure in his youth.

rule: to have and use the highest form of power over (a country, people, etc.), especially as a king, queen, or government; (figurative) guide 統治；駕馭；引導

•In ancient times, the kings of England ruled without a parliament.

•He ruled his children by principle, not by authority.

save: except (for) 除了…之外

•I agree with you, save that you have got one or two facts wrong.

•We know nothing about him save that he was in the army during the war.

•I'm wondering why you should answer all other questions save that easiest one.

season: to give special taste to a food by adding salt, pepper, a spice, etc. 調味

•The soup can be more delicious if you season it with some pepper.

•The dish was finely seasoned.

secure: (formal) to get, especially as the result of effort （經一番努力後）取得；獲得

•He is lucky to have secured himself such a good job.

seeing: considering the fact (that); inasmuch as; because 因為

•Seeing (that) she's lawfully old enough to get married, I don't see how you can stop her.

sense1: meaning （字的）意義

•Nowadays, few people think that the sense of "man" includes both men and women.

sense2: consensus 共識

•The legislator sounded out the sense of the electorate on capital punishment through questionnaires and telephone interviews.

•The sense of the people is that the government should set up one more school in this town for children.

sentiment: an opinion 意見；觀點

•Public sentiment is against any change to the law.

separate: different 不同的

•What he said was often completely separate from what he did.

serve: to be good enough or satisfying for a purpose or the needs of (someone) 滿足；符合

•The room has to serve as (for) both bedroom and living room.

•The bad roof does not even serve to keep the rain out.

•I haven't got a hammer, but this stone should serve (my purpose).

skirt: to avoid (a question, subject, difficulty, etc.) 避免；規避

•The speech was disappointing: it skirted all the main questions.

smart: to cause or feel a painful stinging sensation, usually in one part of the body and not lasting long 刺痛

•The place where he had cut his knee was smarting.

some: adv. (used usu. before a number) about 大約

•It took me some five days to write that paper.

•There were some 40 or 50 people there.

spell1: words believed to have magical powers 咒語；符咒

•He whispered a spell as he moved his hands.

spell2: a period of weather of a specified kind （某類型天氣持續的）一段期間

•The weather bureau forecast that the rainy spell would be over within a few days.

start: to make a quick uncontrolled movement, as from sudden surprise; be startled （因事出意外、突然而）嚇一跳；驚起

•She started at the noise.

•The touch on his shoulder made him start.

strain: (especially literary) notes of music; a tune 曲調；旋律

•Nobody is not familiar with the strain of this well-known song.

suggestion: something not expressed but understood; implication 暗示

•Although he hasn't told me his decision on my request, the manner he showed had a suggestion of refusal.

tone: one of the many types of a particular color, each slightly darker, lighter, brighter, etc. 色調

•This is a picture painted in various tones of green and no other color.

•Perhaps a darker tone would be better.

•Your skin tone looks very healthy.

•The dried color is slightly deeper in tone than it appears when first applied.

vessel: a ship or large boat 船

•The Port of London is filled with vessels of all kinds.

•Our shipping industry is able to build various kinds of vessels.

virtue: power; force; effect 力量；效果

•The pious Christian believed in the virtue of prayer.

weakness: a strong liking 癖好；嗜好；偏好

•I've always had a weakness for the opera.

•Chocolates were her weakness.

while: although 雖然

•While she appreciated the honor, she could not accept the position.

yield: to give, produce, bear, etc.; the thing or amount produced, as of fruit or profit 生；產；結；生產量；收益；利潤

•That tree yields plenty of fruit.

•His business yields big profits.

•The trees gave a high yield this year.

人格與性格

關鍵字彙：

altruistic/ austere/ benefactor/ beneficiary/ benevolent/ benign/ compassionate/ composed/ composure/ conscientious/ despicable/ devious/ disposition/ dissolute/ equable/ equanimity/ extrovert/ exuberant/ frailty/ frantic/ frenetic/ frenzied/ ignoble/ imperturbable/ insusceptible/ integrity/ intractable/ introvert/ inveterate/ licentious/ lofty/ magnanimous/ malleable/ meek/ obdurate/ obstinate/ perverse/ philanthropist/ phlegmatic/ pliable/ pliant/ poise/ poised/ probity/ profligate/ rectitude/ refractory/ rigid/ sanguine/ scrupulous/ sedate/ smear/ stern/ stoop/ streak/ susceptible/ sway/ taciturn/ tractable/ trait/ unruffled/ unscrupulous/ uprightness/ voluptuous/ wayward

1. 「慈悲的」、「對他人之痛苦能夠感同身受的」叫compassionate：

•In spite of her own hunger and thirst, the compassionate girl gave all her food and water to the beggar.

•We should be compassionate toward the miserable.

2. 「慈善的」可用benevolent或benign。其中，benevolent可以指人或事物 ，benign則只能指人：

•He is a benevolent old man and wouldn't hurt a fly.

•They organized a benevolent club to help the underprivileged.

•Everybody likes the benign old lady.

3. 「慈善家」叫philanthropist，「施恩者」叫benefactor，「受惠者」 叫beneficiary：

•As the businessman grew older, he became famous as a philanthropist and benefactor of the needy.

•An anonymous benefactor donated 2 million.

•All the children in the neighborhood will be the beneficiaries of the new playground.

4. 對敵手「寬宏大量的」或對弱勢者「慷慨的」可用magnanimous，「利他的」叫altruistic，理想、情操等「崇高的」、「高貴的」叫lofty：

•The philanthropist was most magnanimous.

•The girl is so altruistic as to do much volunteer work on most of the weekends.

•Mediocre as we may be, we all cherish lofty aims.

•We all admire the teacher for her lofty ideals of liberal education.

•Only a man of lofty sentiments can make such a sacrifice for a mere stranger.

5. 「有良心的」、「是非分明的」、「誠實正直的」可用conscientious 或scrupulous：

•He is a conscientious teacher.

•The boy felt happy because he had done a conscientious piece of work.

•I can recommend him for a position of responsibility, for I have found him a very scrupulous young man.

6. 「誠實正直」、「剛直」可用integrity、uprightness、probity（正式）或rectitude（正式）：

•He is a man of proved integrity.

•A man of his uprightness won't take bribes.

•Everyone took the clerk's probity for granted; his defalcation, therefore, shocked us all.

•The statesman was renowned for his rectitude.

7. 「不誠實的」、「不正直的」可用devious，「昧著良心的」、「毫無道德操守的」、「寡廉鮮恥的」可用unscrupulous，「卑鄙的」、「令人不齒的」可用despicable或ignoble：

•Mary is a devious person and I don't trust her.

•He was suspected to have become rich by devious ways.

•I don't admire him at all because he has used devious means to attain his wicked ends.

•An unscrupulous acquaintance sold them some worthless stocks.

•It is despicable of you to leave your wife and family without any money.

•This plan is inspired by ignoble motives.

8. 「作賤自己」、「自貶人格」可用stoop，「玷汙」名譽、人格等可用smear：

•We liked the man who would not stoop to tell a lie.

•The old public servant's involvement in the case smeared his long-time good reputation.

9. 「個性」、「性情」可用disposition。談到整體個性中的特質，正面者通常用trait，負面者則較常用streak，至於性格上的「弱點」則用frailty：

•She has a happy disposition.

•She is of a cheerful/ sunny/ nervous disposition.

•Anne's generosity is one of her most pleasing traits.

•The chief traits of his character are bravery and kindness.

•Everyone who had been close to the king could easily found that he had a streak of cruelty.

•There's hardly a streak of kindness in his character.

•His stubborn streak makes him very difficult to work with sometimes.

•You need to have a competitive streak if you are working in marketing.

•One of the frailties of human nature is laziness.

10. 「外向者」叫extrovert，「樂觀的」可用sanguine，「神采奕奕的」可用exuberant：

•A good salesperson is usually an extrovert who likes to mingle with people.

•His sanguine disposition itself is a pledge of success.

•He remained to be exuberant all the same after the great loss of his business investment.

11. 「內向者」叫introvert，「沈默寡言的」叫taciturn：

•The poet reveals in his poems that he is an introvert by his intense interest in his own problems.

•New Englanders are reputedly taciturn people.

12. 「嚴厲的」可用austere、rigid或stern：

•Her diffidence resulted from her father's austere upbringing.

•The proctor was regarded as a rigid disciplinarian.

•She is a stern but conscientious teacher.

13. 「沈著的」、「冷靜的」可用composed、equable、imperturbable、phlegmatic、poised、sedate或unruffled：

•She is cool, composed, mistress of herself and her destiny.

•I like working with Jack because he's so calm and equable.

•Having seen people come and go, he came to acquire an equable temper.

•Imperturbable composure is essential when we are in danger.

•The nurse was a cheerful but phlegmatic person.

•We have to remain poised in an earthquake.

•The parents were worried because they felt their son was too quiet and sedate.

•Come what may, we are completely unruffled.

14. 「沈著冷靜」可用composure、equanimity或poise：

•The conductor asked the passengers to keep their composure when the train accident took place.

•He received the bad news with surprising equanimity.

•In his later years, he could look upon the foolishness of the world with equanimity and humor.

•The girl suffered her cruel fate with equanimity.

•As a girl of only 16, Janet has a great deal of poise.

15. 「狂亂的」、「心煩意亂的」可用frantic、frenetic或frenzied：

•The mother is frantic with grief when she heard that her child was dead.

•The noise is driving me frantic.

•At the time of the collision, many people became frantic with fear.

•His frenetic activities convinced us that he had no organized plan of operation.

•The people greeted their leader with frenzied shouts of joy.

•As soon as they smelled smoke, the frenzied animals proceeded to and fro in their cages.

16. 人、品格、個性等「易受影響的」、「有彈性的」、「可塑性大的」可用malleable、pliable或pliant：

•Children's character is more malleable.

•To be a leader, one must not be too pliable.

•A leader should not have pliant will.

17. 「溫順的」、「容易服從的」可用meek或tractable（正式）；「難駕馭的」、「韌性的」可用intractable或wayward；「剛愎自用的」、「刻意唱反調的」可用perverse：

•The employee was as meek as a lamb when reproved by his boss.

•Most of our children are very tractable and willing to learn.

•That intractable boy needs some discipline.

•Scolded by his parents, the wayward child ran away from home.

•The perverse janitor did just what we told him not to do.

•The perverse lad was always disobeying his parents.

18. 「易被…左右或操控的」可用susceptible，「不易被…左右或操控的」則用insusceptible，「左右」、「操控」可用sway：

•Like many people, the manager is susceptible to flattery.

•A leader must be insusceptible to flattery.

•Think independently; don't be swayed by his radical statement.

19. 「積習已深的」、「根深蒂固的」叫inveterate，「頑固的」可用obdurate、obstinate或refractory：

•Churchill was an inveterate smoker.

•The boss was obdurate in his refusal to listen to our complaints.

•He had a very obstinate determination to live as he pleased.

•The employer is as refractory as a mule.

20. 「沈迷於酒色的」、「放蕩的」可用dissolute、licentious、profligate或voluptuous：

•The dissolute life led by those nobles was indeed shocking.

•As a result of his licentious life, the young man quickly dissipated his inheritance.

•Leading a profligate life, he lost all sense of decency.

•The wealthy playboy leads a voluptuous life.

人際互動

關鍵字彙：

amity/ brook/ dote on/ epistle/ forbearance/ forlorn/ gauche/ gregarious/ hail/ liaison/ misanthrope/ nosy/ pamper/ reciprocal/ reciprocate/ recluse/ recompense/ rendezvous/ requite/ seclude/ sequester/ solitude/ tact/ tolerate/ withstand/ xenophobia

1. 不同單位間或同單位的不同部門間的「聯繫」可用liaison：

•Our role is to ensure liaison between schools and parents.

•We work in close liaison with the police.

2. 互動過程中彼此「互惠的」叫reciprocal。另外，正式英文中，「回報」、「補償」可用reciprocate、recompense或requite：

•They held each other in reciprocal esteem.

•They were glad of the chance to reciprocate her kindness.

•Be a little kind; do not recompense good with evil.

•The ungrateful young man requited his benefactors by betraying them.

3. 「合群的」、「好交際的」叫gregarious，「不擅社交的」可用gauche（法文），人際互動或處理難題的技巧可用tact：

•Many Chinese students in the United States are not gregarious and prefer to be alone most of the time.

•No one liked her gauche manner.

•I am quite sure he can handle the embarrassing situation with great tact.

•A minister of foreign affairs who lacks tact is a dangerous man.

4. 「孤零零的」可用forlorn，「孤獨」叫solitude，「隱居」叫seclude 或sequester（文言），「隱士」可用recluse：

•The child is a forlorn waif.

•John is a very social person who cannot bear solitude.

•In the convent she was secluded from secular life.

•Although he had hoped for a long time to sequester himself in a small community, he never was able to drop his busy round of activities in the city.

•The scholar leads the life of a recluse although living in a busy city.

5. 非正式英文中，「好管閒事的」用nosy。另外，「恨世者」、「憤世嫉俗者」 叫misanthrope，「仇外」、「排外」、「怕生」叫xenophobia：

•Don't be so nosy about people's private affairs.

•The hermit was thought to be a misanthrope because he shunned our society.

•If there is xenophobia in us, let's get rid of it.

6. 人際互動的「和睦」叫amity（正式）。另外，「容忍」可用動詞tolerate、withstand或brook（正式），「耐性」、「耐心」、「寬容」可用forbearance：

•Even though getting divorced, they are in amity with each other.

•The teacher can tolerate slowness in learning, but not laziness.

•A politician must be able to withstand public criticism.

•He would brook no interruptions from his listeners.

•This important matter brooks no delay; we must talk about it now.

•A great man often cannot brook a rival.

•The child doesn't understand that he's doing wrong, so you must treat him with forbearance.

•We must use forbearance in dealing with the boy because he is still weak from his illness.

7. 「溺愛」、「寵愛」可用dote on或pamper，但pamper同時也可以指自己對自己好：

•The mother couldn't help doting on her only child.

•She spent her childhood as the pampered daughter of a wealthy family.

•Pamper yourself with the stay in one of our luxury hotels.

•Our flesh should neither be starved nor be pampered.

8. 「打招呼」可用hail，「聚會」、「約會」可用rendezvous（法文）。另外， 正式英文中，「書信」可用epistle：

•An old friend hailed me from the other side of the street.

•Cheerful voices hailed the president as he entered the hall.

•The crowd hailed the returning hero.

•They promised not to fail the once-in-a-year rendezvous after graduation.

•This year we are studying the epistles of some famous poets.

工具；用具

關鍵字彙：

apparatus/ blunt/ decrepit/ gadget/ implement/ kit/ paraphernalia/ percolator/ perforate/ shovel/ siren/ trough/ wedge/ xerox

1. 「工具」、「用具」可用implement，「小工具」、「小器械」叫gadget：

•Spades and hoes are a gardener's implements.

•Shopkeepers are not supposed to sell knives and other sharp implements to children.

•This is a neat gadget for sharpening knives.

•Some businessmen declare that the surest way to make money nowadays is to produce gadgets that will relieve women of housework.

2. 個人「完成特定事情或技巧的一套小工具」可用kit或paraphernalia：

•As a do-it-yourself fan, Mr. Robinson bought a carpenter's kit.

•The writer's desk was cluttered with paper, pen, ink, and other paraphernalia of the writing craft.

•I keep all my photographic paraphernalia in that cupboard.

3. 「為某種用途而裝的一組儀器或機器等」叫apparatus：

•This electric heating apparatus is very clean.

•A lot of apparatus was unworkable in our physics laboratory.

4. 東西「老舊的」、「破舊的」可用decrepit：

•The decrepit car blocked traffic on the highway.

5. 在紙張等上面「打洞」叫perforate，「影印」、「複印」可用xerox，把地上的障礙物等「剷除」可用shovel，讓刀劍等「變鈍」用blunt：

•This machine is used to perforate sheets of postage stamps.

•Would you have this page xeroxed?

•Several young people voluntarily shoveled a path through the snow.

•A good sword will not be easily blunted by long and frequent use.

•Time blunts the edge of sorrow.

6. 幾種用具或工具的名稱：

A. 「咖啡壺」叫percolator：

•This percolator was made in Taiwan.

B. 「警報器」可用siren：

•We were watching TV when the siren of the fire engines passed by.

C. 餵養動物的「食槽」或「水槽」叫trough：

•The horse was led to the water trough, but it did not drink.

D. 用以撐開一個空間或剖開某物的三角狀金屬、橡膠或木塊－「楔子」－叫 wedge：

•Put a wedge in the door so that it will stay open.

•Pieces of stone can be split off by forcing wedges between the layers.

大量與少量

關鍵字彙：

abound in (with)/ copious/ cram/ dearth/ deficiency/ deficient/ devoid/ fecundity/ fraught/ glut/ inkling/ legion/ meager/ multitude/ myriad/ particle/ paucity/ profuse/ remnant/ replenish/ replete/ rife/ scanty/ superfluous/ surfeit/ teem with/ vestige/ void of

1. 指不可能數或不容易數清楚的東西（如眼淚等）「很多的」或「也許過多的」 ，用copious，如果真的過多且形成累贅或困擾，用superfluous：

•The story made her weep copious tears of sadness.

•She had copious reasons to reject the proposal.

•They drank copious amounts of beer last night.

•She took copious notes during the lecture.

•The reporter omitted all superfluous information.

•People may hardly feel that the money they have is superfluous.

2. 假如「大量的」是指人際互動時的情感表達或某事物不受控制地產生、釋放出或流出（類似copious的用法），用profuse：

•Your profuse apologies were not necessary because you did nothing terribly wrong.

•Please accept my profuse thanks for your timely help.

•She was immediately hospitalized with profuse bleeding.

•Her head was covered with a profuse mass of curls.

3. 「很多（的）」、「形形色色（的）」可用myriad：

•A myriad of thoughts passed through her mind.

•Involved and myriad events have filled our modern history.

•A major subject an astronomist studies is the myriad stars in the heavens.

4. 「多產」、「豐饒」可用fecundity：

•The farmer's unique growing method led to the fecundity of these apple trees.

•The fecundity of his mind is illustrated by the many vivid images in his poems.

5. 指數量很大的人群或事物可用legion或multitude，但用multitude指人時通常說the multitude（人群；群眾）：

•The singer has a legion of devoted fans.

•The basketball player has legions of admirers.

•A multitude of thoughts filled her mind.

•He stepped out onto the balcony and addressed the multitude below.

6. 「充滿」可用abound in、abound with或teem with（文言），「飽足的」、「供應完備的」叫replete（正式）：

•The park abounds in (with) wild animals.

•The river abounds in (with)/ teem with fish.

•The scholar has a mind replete with learning.

•Eating one more bowl of noodles, Jack was finally replete.

•They have an apartment replete with the most fantastic furniture.

7. 「塞滿」可用cram，「充斥」叫glut，因為充斥而引起厭膩感或反感， 用surfeit：

•She crammed all her clothes into the bag and had to sit on it to close it.

•Stop cramming your mouth with food!

•The shops are glutted with fruit from abroad because nobody will pay the high prices.

•We are surfeited with the sentimentality of the average television serial.

8. 形容事情充滿著可能的壞結局，用fraught；形容不好的事情在某處蔓延或流行，用rife（文言）：

•Since this enterprise is fraught with danger, the boss will ask for volunteers who are willing to assume the risks.

•The long journey across the desert was fraught with difficulties.

•The city was rife with disease and violence/ Disease and violence were rife in the city.

•In the face of the many rumors of scandal, which are rife at the moment, it is best to remain silent.

9. 「剩餘物」可用remnant，「遺跡」叫vestige：

•I suggest that you wait until the store places the remnants of these goods on sale.

•Archaeologists have been digging for the vestiges of past civilizations.

•Some upright stones in wild places are the vestiges of ancient religions.

10. 「再裝滿」、「補充」叫replenish：

•The secretary used her bonus to replenish her wardrobe.

•She replenishes the food cupboard once a week.

11. 「極少的量」、「一點點」可用particle，對某件事情、某種情況「略有了解」叫inkling：

•I'm afraid you'll have to do with particles of food for a few days.

•There was no particle of truth in what he said.

•I did not have the slightest inkling of your visit.

•His explanation gave me an inkling of the difficulties.

12. 「不足」、「缺乏」可用deficiency或be void of，較正式的用法則是dearth 或paucity：

•He blamed his failure on the deficiency of a good upbringing.

•Their quarrel was triggered by being void of mutual understanding.

•That part of the town is completely void of interest for visitors.

•His paper was rejected because it was void of originality.

•The dearth of skilled labor compelled the employers to open trade schools.

•The dearth of news was brought about by censorship.

•The poor test papers indicate that the members of this class have a paucity of intelligence.

13. 「不夠的」、「缺乏的」可用deficient、meager或scanty：

•The food is deficient in iron.

•The worker was deficient in skill.

•There has been a deficient supply of water in recent months.

•He supplements his meager income by working on Saturdays.

•Through the solid floor of the abode, the chill of winter seeped in, fettered little by the meager warmth provided by the fire.

•The remains of dinner provided only a meager meal that evening.

•Her scanty clothing did not keep out the cold.

14. 正式用法中，「空空的」、「一無所有的」可說成devoid of：

•This house is totally devoid of furniture.

•He is devoid of human feeling.

•The social worker was devoid of any personal desire for gain.

•This was a speech devoid of even a trace of ill-will.

大與小；粗與細

關鍵字彙：

bulky/ cumbersome/ dainty/ elegance/ exquisite/ glossy/ gossamer/ harsh/ mammoth/ microcosm/ miniature/ shoddy/ sleazy/ sleekness/ sumptuous/ taper

1. 「大件的」、「大型的」可用bulky。但這個字所描述的是一種相對的情況或感覺，如果事物客觀地說的確巨大，用mammoth：

•You need to pay more for bulky baggage.

•Students living away from home often received bulky parcels their parents sent them.

•The mammoth corporations of the twentieth century are a mixed blessing.

•After the big earthquake, we found it a mammoth task to clean up the debris of the area.

2. 「笨重的」、「礙手礙腳的」叫cumbersome：

•You'd better travel light; you will find your luggage very cumbersome.

3. 「豪華的」、「奢華的」可用sumptuous：

•The host gave a sumptuous banquet to the guest of honor.

4. 「小巧玲瓏的」、「小而美的」、「纖細的」可用dainty：

•She was a small, dainty child, unlike her sister who was large and had big feet.

•We were given tea and some dainty little cakes.

•The violet is a dainty spring flower.

5. 指複製品或象徵物「縮小版的」用miniature，「小宇宙」、「小世界」、「縮影」用microcosm，指東西的一端「越變越小」用taper：

•He has a rich collection of miniature books.

•The child was playing on the floor with his miniature farm animals.

•This village is a microcosm of the great outside world.

•The church spire tapers off to a point.

6. 「粗糙的」、「過度鮮艷的」、「刺眼或刺耳的」用harsh，「粗製濫造的」 叫shoddy，「精緻的」、「近乎完美的」用exquisite，「精緻高雅」可用 elegance：

•This cloth is harsh to the touch.

•She did not buy the dress because its color is a little too harsh.

•The harsh sunlight made his eyes very uncomfortable.

•Many birds have harsh cries.

•You will never get the public to buy such shoddy material.

•This is an exquisite white fur coat.

•Those orchids are exquisite flowers.

•The sumptuous elegance of the furnishings stunned the visitors.

7. 「廉價且質劣的」用sleazy：

•There is a sleazy hotel in the dirty dark street.

•This piece of sleazy cloth can only be used in cheap garments.